Education and its Influence on Different Socio-economic Spheres Essay

Education and its Influence on Different Socio-economic Spheres - Essay Example In many societies, education is defined as a pillar of strength, alleviating the masses from ignorance and paving the way toward a bigger and brighter future. Education systems perform a fundamental role in the development of human attitudes and behavior. It directly affects several spheres of day-to-day living from health, gender and democracy to interpersonal relationships, environmentalism and nationality. Education and Health There is considerable evidence that education is strongly linked to health and to determinants of health such as healthy behaviour, risky contexts and preventative service use (Partnership for Child Development, 2013). However, education does not act in seclusion from other factors, such as income. Income is a notably significant factor that interacts in many essential ways with education, as an influencing factor on health. This makes it hard to assess their independent effects. However, empirical investigations often find the effect of education on health is at least as great as the effect of income. Education impacts on health in two ways; firstly through teaching that enables children to learn specifically about health (often known as skills-based health education) and secondly through the educational process as a whole which provides skills such as critical thinking and making choices that enable children to opt for healthy lifestyles (Partnership for Child Development, 2013). ... Certain differences between the two genders are biological; they arise from physical and other differences that are linked to the different genders. In most societies, men and women have different roles and statuses. It’s easy to draw connections between the behaviour of men and women, and the physical differences that we can observe. The conclusion can then be drawn that differences in behaviour can be attributed to physical differences between the two genders and that the differences in their social roles and positions grow out of their different patterns of behaviour, their abilities and limitations (Teachers Talking about Learning, 2002). However, upon review of biology, psychology, anthropology and education, we find that it’s very difficult to prove which behaviours in men and women arise from physical differences. Many differences, we find, could be produced by the different ways that men and women are brought up as children and arguably the education they receiv e. In relation to thinking and learning processes, and consequently the ability to learn, males and females are more alike than different. Education and Sex Evaluations of comprehensive sex education programs show that these programs can help youth delay onset of sexual activity, reduce the frequency of sexual activity, reduce number of sexual partners, and increase condom and contraceptive use. Importantly, the evidence shows youth who receive comprehensive sex education are not more likely to become sexually active, increase sexual activity, or experience negative sexual health outcomes. Effective programs exist for youth from a variety of racial, cultural, and socioeconomic backgrounds. Researchers studied the National Survey of

Jewish History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Jewish History - Essay Example These immigrations are similar in their ways of adapting in new countries, but they had differences in reasons of immigration and challenges and experiences in their new countries. Enduring Understanding These two Jewish populations differed in challenges and experiences in their new countries, with the Jews in Babylon faring better than the Ethiopian Jews in Israel, even when they both experienced comparatively equal human rights in their new countries. In Babylon, Jews hated being separated from their homeland, but they flourished as merchants and professionals (Hooker). They enjoyed many of the liberties provided to local Babylonians, such as owning land, freedom to practice Judaism, and acquiring wealth (Hooker). They prospered significantly due to the extensive trade routes that existed in this region (Moss). In Israel, the Ethiopian Jews generally experienced intense poverty, due to poor Hebrew/English language skills and lack of employability skills (â€Å"Ethiopia's Jews: Th e Last Exodus†). These Jews came from agricultural communities and were forced to rapidly assimilate into a cosmopolitan lifestyle and economic structure (Chen). Ethiopian Jews also suffered from discrimination, because some Jews questioned their â€Å"Jewishness† (â€Å"Ethiopia's Jews: The Last Exodus†). ... The situation became more depressing throughout the early 1980's. The state demanded forced conscription at the age of 12, which separated many Jewish boys away from their parents (â€Å"The History of Ethiopian Jews†). Furthermore, Ethiopian Jews feared the threats of war, famine, and unbearable health conditions (â€Å"The History of Ethiopian Jews†). The pull factors of their migration came from Israel and the U.S., which wanted to save them and bring them to Israel. In 1977, Prime Minister Menachem Begin wanted the Ethiopian Jews to immigrate to Israel (â€Å"Ethnic Groups: Ethiopian Jews†). For the Jews who were deported to Babylon, they faced pull factors. The Chaldeans, as they pursued similar Mesopotamian practice, deported the Jews after they subdued Jerusalem in 597 BC. Hence, they suffered exile that led to their Diaspora. Despite feelings of discrimination, both the Ethiopian Jews and Jews in Babylonian exile persevered through learning their new coun try’s language and adapting to their culture. The Ethiopian Jews learned Hebrew and English and adapted practices and skills that enabled them to live and work in the city (Chen). Their children studied in Israelite schools and some successfully finished school and became prominent political and social leaders (Chen). In Babylon, the Jews adopted the Chaldean religion. In both cases, the Ethiopian and Babylonian Jews contributed to the socio-economic and cultural diversity of their new countries, although some feared that Ethiopian Jews never truly fit into Israel’s way of life, because their poverty (Chen). Comparison of the Immigration of Ethiopian Jews to Israel and

Mental Illness And Social Theory

Mental Illness And Social Theory Throughout history, there have been differing views of how mental illness was thought to occur, and how it should be subsequently treated. For example Greek and Roman philosophers such as Hippocrates and Plato advocated that abnormal behaviour resulted from an internal disease, with Hippocrates believing it was an imbalance of the four humours that were thought to flow through the body (Comer, 2005). As such, physicians of the time treated it accordingly, using a mixture of methods such as bleeding and restraining (Comer, 2005: 8) to more supportive techniques such as calming atmospheres and music. However with the decline of the Roman Empire from roughly 500 A.D., a change in perceptions of abnormal behaviour occurred with religion dominating thought over science. As such, mental illness became viewed as arising through possession of the Devil, with the only cure being an exorcism by clergymen, or beating and starving the individual (Comer, 2005). However it was only around the 1400 s that mental illness became viewed as a sickness within the mind (Comer, 2005: 10), and as such the asylum was created as an institution to care for the mentally ill, and while often a cruel place, it was seen as the establishment charged with caring for those deemed mentally ill (Scull, 2006). Yet the main so called change in reform of the mentally ill was attributed to the work of Tuke and Pinel (Comer, 2005: 11) where instead of promoting treatment involving beatings and restraint, they used methods where the mentally ill were allowed to be unrestrained and encouraged to monitor their own behaviour, in methods known as moral treatment (Scull, 2006: 115). These methods transformed the way mental illness was handled, however, into the 20th century; many of the mentally ill were still being confined to long term stays in asylums (Comer, 2005). While this is a very brief history of mental illness, the changing perceptions of the causes and subsequent treatment of the mentally ill throughout history raises several important issues. Firstly, the definition of mental illness has not remained constant and indeed mental illness itself has been called madness, insanity (Comer, 2005: 10) and in the field of psychology, is studied as abnormal psychology. This raises the second issue, in that mental illness is still defined as something which could be considered deviant or not normal, and as such requires the individual to receive treatment. The field that has been associated and subsequently dominated diagnosis and treatment of mental illness in the 20th century (Summerfield, 2001) is psychiatry. Psychiatry typically draws upon positivist thinking, in that a mental illness is a real and observable phenomenon (Eisenberg, 1988: 2) that must be diagnosed and subsequently treated, with the usual assumption that the illness has manifest ed due to some biological abnormality (Fisher, 2003). However while this view continues to dominate thinking within psychiatry, it can be argued that these concepts of mental illness have been heavily criticised and indeed, the institution of psychiatry itself has also been criticised. Therefore the aims of this essay are to firstly examine the problems of the psychiatric approach and how social theory has provided a useful evaluation of how mental illness, rather than existing as real and observable illnesses which psychiatrists must find and treat, could actually be seen as socially constructed. This will then lead into a discussion of the debates around how useful a social constructionist perspective is, before evaluating the institution of psychiatry as a whole, drawing on the work of Foucault and associated theorists, arguing that the psychiatric institution, instead of being a liberating force for the mentally ill, actually exercises methods of social control. Finally this will allow for an assessment of whether these evaluations are more useful to consider than continuing adopting the dominant positivist methods forwarded by psychiatry. The Problem of Psychiatric Approaches to Mental Illness The current system which psychiatry utilizes in order to define and diagnose mental illness is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). This manual, currently in its fourth edition lists what it has defined as mental illness onto 5 axes. For example Axis 1 contains all disorders considered to be related to mental health, from mood disorders to sexual disorders with the exception of personality disorders and what is termed mental retardation, which is placed on Axis 2 (Comer, 2005). In addition to this, certain criteria are listed, in order to determine if an individual can be diagnosed with a specific mental illness. For example, depression would be classified as a mood disorder and in order to be diagnosed as having a major depressive episode, an individual would need to exhibit five out of eight symptoms listed persistently for at least two weeks, with one symptom being either depressed mood or loss of interest or pleasure (Davidson and Neale, 2001: 242) While this is a useful approach, should a positivist stance be taken in that mental illness is an observable fact, waiting to be uncovered in an individual (Eisenberg, 1988), it becomes problematic when considering two issues. Firstly what has been defined as mental illness has not remained constant within psychiatry and has also faced criticism over how it is diagnosed, and secondly, the categorisation of an individual as mentally ill can have serious social consequences such as producing stigma (Thornicroft, 2006). In addressing the first issue, at the inception of the DSM in 1952, sixty categories were listed as being mental illnesses, and this number increased to one hundred and forty five illnesses in the second edition in 1968 (Balon, 2008), however it was perhaps in the third edition, published in 1980, where the biggest change occurred. Not only has 230 illnesses been identified and classified as illnesses, but a change occurred in which homosexuality was removed as being a mental disorder after campaigning from Gay activist groups (Silverstein, 2008). However the DSM in its current form continues to cause controversy over classifications, especially with those surrounding sexuality, for example it has been questioned as to whether issues such as female orgasmic disorder or certain fetishes should actually be classified as disorders (Ussher, 1997: 5). Similarly, classifications for diagnosis have also been somewhat vague. For example, while diagnoses for depression typically include a tim eframe in which the symptoms must be present, there is no such temporal criterion for sexual disorders, meaning that diagnosis could be somewhat ambiguous (Balon, 2008: 190). This idea of the DSMs criteria making diagnosis somewhat vague was highlighted in the classic study by Rosenhan (1973) in which eight participants were each sent to twelve different psychiatric hospitals and instructed, at admissions, to say they had been hearing voices, and had heard the words empty, hollow and thud (Rosenhan, 1973: 251). Each participant was subsequently admitted to the respective hospital, and upon admission, apart from general nervousness of their situation, continued to behave normally and told staff they were no longer experiencing any symptoms. Despite this, participants were admitted to the hospitals for periods ranging between 7 and 52 days, and all but one was discharged with the diagnosis Schizophrenia in remission (Rosenhan, 1973: 252). While this study is flawed due to its deception and would not have been ethically allowed in modern times, it did raise some serious issues about psychiatric evaluation and diagnosis, with perhaps one of the most troublin g aspects being that perfectly sane individuals were labelled as schizophrenic, and likely would have been stuck with that label (Rosenhan, 1973: 252). This leads onto the second problem of psychiatric definitions of mental illness, in that individuals become labelled as having an illness, meaning they are more readily seen as deviating from social norms and as such, reactions to the individual with the mental illness change radically (Bowers, 1998:7). This can often produce a stigma of mental illness meaning once individuals are classified as being mentally ill, they may suffer problems with their family and friends or discrimination at work and this can often be fuelled by media interpretations of mental illness (Thornicroft, 2006). For example because a mental illness such as schizophrenia is classified by the DSM as having at least 2 symptoms including hallucinations, delusions disorganised speech etc, for a significant proportion of time for a least a month (Comer, 2005: 360), it becomes simplified by the media as meaning a person with a mental illness will be mad and dangerous (Thornicroft, 2006: 113). Similarly this transfers into the public who are found to have a profound ignorance (Thornicroft, 2006: 231) over what it means to be mentally ill and also problems for mentally ill individuals who are often targets for discrimination and, as such, find their lives change as a result of the label of mentally ill that is imposed upon them. Alternative Methods of Defining Mental Illness Given the problems that appear to arise from the dominant psychiatric methods of defining and diagnosing mental illness, it would seem that alternative methods should be considered as to how mental illness should be viewed. One method is to take the definitions of mental illnesses themselves and determine how they have arisen through discourse and how they can be subsequently viewed as socially constructed (Ussher, 1997, 4). For example, the psychiatric viewpoint of mental illness is framed as objectively diagnosing an individual with a mental illness, which is seen to be real and identifiable. However if a postmodern approach was adopted, which asserts that there are no absolute truths, e.g. a mental illness doesnt just exist, but instead is different interpretations are formed through language (Walker, 2006: 71). This would imply that instead of psychiatry objectively discovering a mental illness within an individual, they have actually created a perspective whereby someone who has a mental illness is ill and deviating form the norm, and as such needs to be diagnosed and treated (Walker, 2006: 72). This social construction of mental illness is done so through the utilization of discourse. In the case of the psychiatric perspective, the view that mental illness is identifiable and diagnosable is taken as truth, with the psychiatrist patient relationship dominated by the psychiatrist who diagnoses the illness and proceeds to medicate the individual (Armstrong, 1994: 19; Walker, 2006: 74). However while the feelings that an individual presents to a psychiatrist may be very real, the associated labels such as schizophrenia or depression only exist as they have been agreed upon as taking a certain meaning through language. This can also be the case in viewing mental illness as a whole; the psychiatric discourse has created these categories of mental illness, which become associated with wholly negative connotations, producing severe consequences for the individual. For example, if Foucauldian discourse perspective is taken, this categorisation would provide a definition of how the individual understands their identity, and perhaps more importantly how others view their identity (Roberts, 2005: 38). However this can also end up becoming their identity. For example, instead of being an individual with schizophrenia, they become schizophrenic and that is their identity. However if the postmodernist perspective of mental illness is followed through, it suggests that mental illness does not actually exist, nor do the labels that follow it, such as schizophrenia or depression. Instead these are just constructions formed by psychiatry to allow them to categorise people as they feel necessary (Walker, 2006: 75). However this also suggests that individuals who experience these symptoms should not merely be categorised as psychiatry dictates, because, as has been discussed previously, this often produces stigma. Instead, by adopting a postmodernist perspective, subjective accounts of individuals experiences should be used to determine how they construct their illness, rather than viewing them as ill patients who are deviating from the norm. For example by allowing individuals who have been diagnosed with, say, depression to construct their own discourse around their experiences, more useful information may be sought about how they feel in relation to this diagnosis and may also help to reduce stigma that is associated by the categorisation process employed by psychiatry. For example a study by LaFrance, (2007) utilized the discourse of women, to examine how they constructed their experiences of depression having received a medical diagnosis of depression. The findings from adopting a discourse analytic approach found that the women, upon receiving a diagnosis of depression often felt relieved as they could then interpret it as its not my fault (LaFrance, 2007: 134), however in relation to more physical illnesses, they felt it was difficult to gain a legitimacy for their pain as the actual illness was not readily observable what I wish we could do is like stick a thermometer in your ear and check your serotonin level (La France, 2007: 134). By allowing individuals who are diagnosed with depression to discuss more openly their experiences of having being labelled as such, it can allow for a reinterpretation of what these illnesses are. Rather than being objectively defined as a pathological entity within the body, using a postmodernist perspective utilizing discourse, mental illness can be viewed from the perspective of the individuals experiences of the pain, illness and distress (LaFrance, 2007: 137) they encounter. This allows for a removal of mere categorisation and may also help to minimize stigma. However it should also be noted that while taking a postmodern perspective by deconstructing the labels of mental illness could be useful in providing more insight into individuals experiences and as such, minimise stigma, it can have limitations. For example as Ussher (1997) notes, if you take an extreme deconstructionist perspective, a situation is created whereby nothing is real, everything is just a social label; an invention of those in power (Ussher, 1997: 5). This could have consequences, in that there are no longer categories which define a sexual problem or a crime, as they merely become constructions of language. If this argument was followed through, it would mean that issues such as paedophilia would be justified as there would no longer be any reason to warrant criminalising sexual acts with children (Ussher, 1997: 6) and this is clearly wrong. However if a certain level of deconstruction is acknowledged, as mentioned above, it could be useful in creating a shift away fr om the dominant psychiatric view of an objective diagnosis and labelling system of mental illness. The Continuing Dominance of Psychiatry Social Control of Psychiatry It has been outlined above that drawing on a postmodern perspective of utilizing discourse to deconstruct categories of mental illness forwarded by psychiatry could be useful, particularly in gaining insight into those who experience mental illness and also using that to help reduce the stigma which evolves from labelling and categorising. However, despite the clear faults the psychiatric methods have in defining and diagnosing mental illness, these alternative approaches have not been introduced. It could be said that this is due to the power that psychiatry yields over the mentally ill. For example, Scull (2006) notes, in the early 19th century, reform of how mental illness was treated occurred by which it became a condition which could only be authoritatively diagnosed, certified and treated by a group of legally recognised experts (Scull, 2006: 111). While this change occurred as to who could legitimately deal with the mentally ill, a change, as mentioned above, also occurred into how the mentally ill should be treated, with Pinel and Tuke advocating the notion of treating the mentally ill rationally and humanely (Scull, 2006: 114). This may therefore suggest that the 19th century revolutionised how mental illness was viewed and treated, with the idea of the mentally ill being liberated. However, in drawing on the works of Foucault, it could be said that this view is quite misguided. While Foucaults work is complex and wide ranging, his concepts of power/knowledge and the body have been central to providing an alternative account of the domination of psychiatry and how society views mental illness. For example in Foucaults (1967 [2001]) work Madness and Civilization, a detailed history is provided on how madness has been changed and redefined throughout history. In brief, it is argued that a transformation occurred in that there was a change from the sane person being able to communicate effectively with the madman, to a state whereby the madman is segregated and not to be communicated with (Matthews, 1995: 24). This occurred, as from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance period, madness was seen as moving from an entity which was beyond human life, to something that was inherent within the self. As such, it was seen as something that required individuals with the affliction of madness to be confined, and indeed by the 17th century those who were considered deviant were to be segregated, including the mad, the unemployed, prisoners etc (Matthews, 1995: 25). However, it was seen that they were not confined for their own wellbeing or safety, but instead because they were not contributing effectively to society as normal citizens. Towards the 18th century, it is argued that even with the introduction of more humane methods of treating the mentally ill, such as those forwarded by Pinel and Tuke, this was still seen as a method of control, attempting to transform the mad individual into someone deemed socially normal (Matthews, 1995: 25). For example, Foucault (1967 [2001: 255-256]) notes that: the asylum of the age of positivism, which is Pinels glory to have founded, is not a free realm of observation, diagnosis and therapeutics; it is a juridical space where one is accused, judged and condemned, and from which one is never released except by the version of this trial in psychological depth -that is, by remorse This implies that the methods considered as being the liberation of the mentally ill in the 19th century, which pre-empted modern psychiatry, were actually methods of controlling the mentally ill. They are labelled as having an illness such as depression or schizophrenia, which is a deviation from normal functioning, reasonable individuals, and as such, require treatment in order to attempt to return to them to normative state. With this view of modern psychiatry, it could be said that as it is the dominiant institution responsible for mental illness, it acts as a method of social control by having the power to identify deviant individuals and attempt to treat them, subsequently cure them of their illness and return them to normality. Social Control through Surveillance However, crucial to understanding this method of social control, is to also understand the power that the psychiatric institution holds over the mentally ill, and it could be argued that it is through Foucaults (Rabinow, 1991) ideas of disciplinary power. For example, Foucault argued that instead of old methods of control of deviant bodies being used, such as physical punishment (Armstrong, 1994: 21), new methods were created which allowed for bodies to be observed and analysed (Armstrong, 1994: 21) through methods of surveillance. To illustrate this idea, Foucault uses the idea of Benthams design for an ideal prison, known as the panopticon, where a central watchtower looks over cells distributed in a circular fashion (Roberts, 2005: 34). The method of the panopticon was to be able to continuously observe inmates, however from the inmates point of view, they would never know when they were being watched, or if they were being watched at all. This allows for a dynamic in which a powe r relation is created and maintained, whereby the individual is made a subject, never free from knowing when they are being observed and thus having to correct and monitor their behaviour accordingly (Roberts, 2005: 34). For example as Foucault notes, it must be possible to hold the prisoner under permanent observation, every report that can be made about him must be recorded and computed (Foucault, cited in Rabinow, 1994: 217). While this was referring to prisoners being held as criminals, the concept can also be identified and analysed in relation to psychiatric institutions. For example after a diagnosis of a mental illness has been made, individuals become analysed and evaluations for treatment made, and this becomes documented within medical records. While, as Roberts (2005) notes, that this is standard procedures for care, from a Foucauldian perspective, it could be seen as a panoptic method of ensuring the individual is continually watched and assessed, and should any deviations occur, interventions may used, to correct the deviancy (Roberts, 2005: 36). However this does not merely occur within an institution, but the levels of panoptic surveillance may occur within an individuals community. For example if someone is given the identity of schizophrenic, they will be monitored by many different professional staff that will assess their treatment and symptoms but they will also be subject to surveillance from family members or friends (Roberts, 2005: 36). This would imply that the methods of psychiatric social control extend beyond simply having the authority to correct deviancy, but instead psychiatric disciplinary power infiltrates many aspects of an individuals life, meaning they may never be free from surveillance of their illness or having an identity of being mentally ill. This Foucauldian perspective is rather critical of the psychiatric institution, however when considering the stigma that those with a mental illness encounter, it could be a useful theoretical approach to take when considering the dominance of psychiatry. For example, as mentioned previously and highlighted by the Rosenhan (1973) study, a diagnosis and labelling of being mentally ill can become a lifelong issue and often, while being subject to surveillance by psychiatric and medical institutions, individuals are also subject to surveillance by their friends, family and peers, however if what is viewed is negatively perceived, or if the individual does not correct their behaviour this can have consequences. For example as Thornicroft (2006: 25) states from an individual with mental illness, I have lost all my friends since the onset of my illnessà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦I lost my career, my own flat, my car. Mental illness has destroyed my life. This suggests that again, the dominance of psych iatry, even in modern times, if taken from a Foucauldian perspective, can have drastic consequences for those who are diagnosed with mental illness. Other Power Relations as Explanations for Psychiatric Dominance Foucauldian perspectives clearly illustrate that psychiatry can be considered the dominant institution for monitoring those with mental illness, as they are able to correct them by means of social control and also the very manner in which psychiatry functions, allows them to survey those with a mental illness indefinitely, through the ideas of disciplinary power. However one other aspect that should be considered as to why psychiatry has continued to be the dominant institution for identifying those who are mentally ill, is their intrinsic affiliations to the pharmaceutical companies (Scull, 2006: 127). For example, in returning to the methods of the psychiatric institution, they take a positivist view that mental illness is real and observable and requiring treatment and they usually identify it as underlying a biological abnormality of brain functioning, such as serotonin deficencies in depression (Comer, 2005). However it could be argued that it is pharmaceutical industry that continues to allow this approach to be taken. For example, if classifying a mental illness as real and observable with an underlying biological cause, this allows for the assumption that it can be treated, and the pharmaceutical industry fuels this, by providing the medication (Fisher, 2003: 66). However this view is also advocated by psychiatry, because as Scull (2006) and Fisher (2003) argue, the profits that pharmaceutical companies make contribute towards funding research, the journals and the departments of psychiatry (Fisher, 2003: 66). As such, the psychiatric profession have an invested interest in maintaining their positivist standpoint, and as this happens to conform to the positivist natural model of scientific research, it has asserted itself as the only reality, due to holding this power (LaFrance, 2007: 128). Usefulness of the Critical Evaluation of Psychiatry As can be seen in the discussions above, the evaluations of psychiatry drawing on social theory perspectives have been quite critical, both in terms of how psychiatry defines and diagnoses mental illness, but also how the institution of psychiatry as a whole functions. For example it has drawn from post modern perspectives to suggest that the very notion of mental illness is socially constructed through discourse (Walker, 2006) and from a Foucauldian perspective, the psychiatric institution serves to control the deviant population by attempting to normalise them again through the use of disciplinary power (Roberts, 2005). However, while these evaluations are certainly useful and provide a perspective into how psychiatry and mental illness can be viewed, to take this wholly negative view may be just as problematic as adopting the purely positivist assumptions forwarded by psychiatry. For example, in addressing the first evaluation that mental illness can be considered to be socially constructed through discourse, as explained by Ussher (1997), if this is taken to the point of an extreme social constructionist perspective, then nothing will actually be considered real, just multiple realities created through discourse. This could be problematic for those who do suffer from mental illness. For example interpreting mental illness as something that doesnt actually exist, or is not definable but merely a social construction is not very helpful for an individual with real symptoms which they experience. For example as Bowers (1998) mentions, to take a view that mental illness is something that could be considered beneficial or non existent is a failing to accept the reality of their suffering and disability (Bowers, 1998: 104). As such, theoretically it may be useful to consider mental illness as socially constructed, and indeed given the study by Rosenhan (1973), diag nosis can often be difficult or misinterpreted, for those who actually suffer from mental illness, a diagnosis may actually be comforting. For example, in an excerpt from an individual with mental illness, it can be seen that often a diagnosis means that it feels something can then be done. The individual, when discussing her initial diagnosis of schizophrenia recalls it was so enormously helpful to think; (a) this was something diagnosable, and (b) there are self help groups (Thornicroft, 2006: 48). As such, while the psychiatric methods of defining and diagnosing mental illness could be seen as theoretically problematic, as they are known, individuals who are diagnosed may feel comforted to know that the symptoms they experience are not simple constructions, but an actual treatable illness. In addressing the second criticism social theory has levelled at psychiatry, in that from a Foucauldian perspective, it can be seen as an institution of continual surveillance and social control (Roberts, 2005). This implies that psychiatry exists with a unidirectional form of power, selecting deviant individuals and attempting to normalise them through treatment and surveillance. However it could be said that this power/knowledge approach to psychiatry is somewhat simplistic, implying only psychiatric experts are involved in addressing the diagnosis and treatment of lay peoples' mental illness, however this may not be the case. As mentioned in the LaFrance (2007) study, sufferers of mental illness have been invited to express their views on their experiences of mental illness and how they viewed their treatment and this can often be used to inform and re-evaluate how these with mental illness should be treated by experts. For example Pilgrim and Rogers (1997) highlight that often those who had experienced mental illness could not contribute the onset to a singular cause but, identified numerous causes such as a loss of a child, previous abuse, having a broken engagement etc (Pilgrim and Rogers, 1997: 42). However psychiatrists typically noted onset as originating from something which was termed biomedical (Pilgrim and Rogers, 1997: 43) and as such, by identifying how sufferers view their illness, this can help further inform the experts. Similarly, Pilgrim and Rogers (1997) also highlight that there is not expert knowledge of mental illness and lay knowledge of mental illness but often the two are often intertwined, with expert knowledge becoming subject to layification (Pilgrim and Rogers, 39). Therefore to simply assert that psychiatry exerts social control and surveillance over mental illness suffers appears to be ignoring the notion that individuals may not be passive patients and may have their o wn interpretations and views on their illness. Conclusion It is somewhat difficult to determine whether the critical evaluation social theory provides in reaction to the methods psychiatry uses to define and treat mental illness are more useful. For example, while the positivist methodology currently adopted by psychiatry has been problematic given their changing of what constitutes as mental illness (Balon, 2008) and also the reported difficulties in diagnosis (Rosenhan, 1973), it is unclear whether adopting a social constructionist approach would be useful in practice. While it certainly has highlighted the faults of positivist notions of schizophrenia and depression simply existing (Walker, 2006) and this may help to reduce stigma, given that it is such a widely accepted approach, people in some cases may find comfort in being given a diagnosis (Thornicroft, 2006). Similarly, while the works of Foucault are certainly insightful in suggesting that the liberation of the insane was merely a different form of confinement through social control, it does provide an assumption that psychiatry is merely an institution whose aims are to normalise individuals through medication and view them as simple, passive recipients of care. However as Pilgrim and Rogers (1997) highlighted, often knowledge which lay and experts hold of mental illness can become intertwined and, indeed, psychiatrists have utilized research into patients experiences in order to provide a better standard of care for them. Therefore this essay would advocate, in a similar manner to Ussher (1997) that neither the psychiatric positivist methods are completely flawless and neither are social theory approaches, such as post modernism or a Foucauldian analysis. However a combination of the two may not provide a better system either, therefore while it is acknowledged that social theory has provided a useful critical evaluation of psychiatry, it is not necessarily a correct one. As such, it may be more useful to consider the individuals who suffer from mental illness as the ones who should advocate h

Discuss Stevenson’s portrayal of the dual nature of man’s personality :: English Literature:

Discuss Stevenson’s portrayal of the dual nature of man’s personality in the novel: Dr Jekyll and Mr. Hyde Robert Louis Stevenson’s novel â€Å"The strange case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde† was deeply influenced by a number of diverse factors. Stevenson came from a family with a history of lawyers, doctors and other similar professions. His nanny was a very devoted Christian and from a young age used to teach him wrong from right. The novel was based on a nightmare he had and he constructed it from there. Another factor is Darwin’s theory of evolution; in â€Å"The origin of species† published in 1859 in it he states that men are descended from apes. Another factor which very much influenced Stevenson’s portrayal of the duality of man was Sigmund Freud’s psychological theory. laws. According to Freud, we are all born with our own id, an important part of our personality because it allows us to get our basic needs met. Freud believed that the id is based on our pleasure principle. In other words, the id wants whatever feels good at the time, with no consideration for the reality of the situation. A good example of this is a baby; the id is dominant in his personality, when he wants food, it cries. During the Victorian era however people found it very hard to believe these theories as they went against natural In the novel Dr. Jekyll is like an ego the outer part of you which everyone sees and Mr. Hyde is like the id the part of us we all try to suppress as it is unacceptable in society. When the id wants something, nothing else is important. The novel â€Å"The strange case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde† was published in 1886 during the Victorian times. It was originally intended as a frightening Christmas tale. The protagonist in this novel is a man who has a dual identity. The title "Jekyll and Hyde" sounds like seek and hide which might indicate what the story is about and why those characters have those names. Perhaps Stevenson advocates that throughout the book a game of hide and seek is being played this creates a feeling of mystery and suspense and the reader is continually captivated. Dr Jekyll created Mr. Hyde in his somewhat warped view that the soul is made up of two separate divisions: the good and the bad his mission was to find a drug that separates the two so that they two do not have to live in constant competition. We can tell that Stevenson used Freud’s ideas in when he says; â€Å"The man is Discuss Stevenson’s portrayal of the dual nature of man’s personality :: English Literature: Discuss Stevenson’s portrayal of the dual nature of man’s personality in the novel: Dr Jekyll and Mr. Hyde Robert Louis Stevenson’s novel â€Å"The strange case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde† was deeply influenced by a number of diverse factors. Stevenson came from a family with a history of lawyers, doctors and other similar professions. His nanny was a very devoted Christian and from a young age used to teach him wrong from right. The novel was based on a nightmare he had and he constructed it from there. Another factor is Darwin’s theory of evolution; in â€Å"The origin of species† published in 1859 in it he states that men are descended from apes. Another factor which very much influenced Stevenson’s portrayal of the duality of man was Sigmund Freud’s psychological theory. laws. According to Freud, we are all born with our own id, an important part of our personality because it allows us to get our basic needs met. Freud believed that the id is based on our pleasure principle. In other words, the id wants whatever feels good at the time, with no consideration for the reality of the situation. A good example of this is a baby; the id is dominant in his personality, when he wants food, it cries. During the Victorian era however people found it very hard to believe these theories as they went against natural In the novel Dr. Jekyll is like an ego the outer part of you which everyone sees and Mr. Hyde is like the id the part of us we all try to suppress as it is unacceptable in society. When the id wants something, nothing else is important. The novel â€Å"The strange case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde† was published in 1886 during the Victorian times. It was originally intended as a frightening Christmas tale. The protagonist in this novel is a man who has a dual identity. The title "Jekyll and Hyde" sounds like seek and hide which might indicate what the story is about and why those characters have those names. Perhaps Stevenson advocates that throughout the book a game of hide and seek is being played this creates a feeling of mystery and suspense and the reader is continually captivated. Dr Jekyll created Mr. Hyde in his somewhat warped view that the soul is made up of two separate divisions: the good and the bad his mission was to find a drug that separates the two so that they two do not have to live in constant competition. We can tell that Stevenson used Freud’s ideas in when he says; â€Å"The man is

Political Unrest in Lybia

Political Unrest in Libya Introduction For the past forty-two years Muammar Gaddafi has been in control of Libya. For the past few months the people of Libya has been involved in a civil war with hopes of Muammar Gaddafi stepping down as the Prime Minister. The civil war began with the arrest of human rights activist Fethi Tarbel; who works to free political prisoners. The arrest of Tarbel triggered a riot in the city of Benghazi. February 17, 2006 is a known date in Libya because that was the day that security forces killed protesters outside of the Italian consulate, so anti-Gaddafi activist choose February 17, 2011 as a day of rage. All over the city of Benghazi laws were being defied and law enforcement officers were being ignored by the people who were tired of forty-two years of Muammar Gaddafi’s reign. The Libyan civil war is an important social issue because Muammar Gaddafi is killing his own people in attempt to keep control of Libya. Any time a leader is killing his own people it is a matter of international affairs. As a leader he should not be killing his own people in attempt to keep control of his reign. As a nation we should be worried about the Libyan war because not only is innocent people being killed, Libya is an oil producing country. As an oil producing country Libya exports 1. 6 million barrels a day eighty percent of oil exported Libya is imported to Europe (petroleum-export). The United States imports one percent of Libyan oil but forty percent of European oil and when imported oil is disrupted in Europe it is felt in the United States. Libya is also surrounded by countries that are sometimes hostile. The United States depends on Libya to be able to project influence and power into those hostile countries if needed to be (NPR). General Background Libyan Arab Jamahiriya is a country in northern Africa that was previously controlled by the Italians until 1943 when they lost in World War II. Libya gained their independence in 1951 from the United Nations Trusteeship making Tripoli the capital. Libya is populated with about 6,597,960 people with a thirty percent unemployment rate (CIA). Majority of the people that make up Libya is from the Arabian descent. With majority of the people being Arab, the religion that is most practiced is Sunni Muslim (CIA). There are three languages that are widely spoken in Libya which are: English, Italian and Arabic being the official language of Libya. While some people might mistake Libya for being a communist country it is not. The belief of Libya is from the â€Å"green book† which rejects communism (CIA). Libya is actually considered an authoritarian country which is defined as; characterized by or favoring absolute obedience to authority, as against individual freedom (the free dictionary). Just like any other self-governing country Libya has its own military with all five branches. Muammar Gaddafi fights for power and gets it Muammar Gaddafi sometimes referred to as Colonel Gaddafi graduated from the University of Libya in 1963 (Britannica). Soon after that he began to come up with a plan to overthrow King Idris I. He decided to go to a military academy to achieve some rank. In 1965 Muammar Gaddafi graduated from the Libyan Military Academy (Britannica). After he graduated he began to rise within the ranks of the Libyan military. September 1, 1969 Colonel Gaddafi successfully overthrew the monarchy of King Idris I in a bloodless military coup (Britannica). Many high ranking officials thought his plan was a mastermind so at the age of twenty-seven colonel Gaddafi was named commander in chief of the armed forces and chairman of the revolutionary command council which was Libya’s new governing body. In 1970 he was appointed Prime Minister (Britannica). Once in power Gaddafi began making some radical changes in Libya by removing the United States and British military bases from Libyan soil (Britannica). He began to push his Islamic beliefs onto the people of Libya by banning alcoholic beverages and gambling. Gaddafi tried several times to unite Libya with other Arabian countries, but all of his attempts were unsuccessful. He formed the Arab Socialist Republics changing the official name of Libya to Republic Great Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (dnewsglobal). Not only did he change the name of Libya but he also changed the flag from its original red, black, and green with a star and crescent on the middle to a simple green colored flag. He changed the government landscape of Libya to be led into two main pillars (dnewsglobal). One of them is called the â€Å"revolutionary sector† while the other is called he â€Å"Jamahiriya Sector†. They are extremely different because the revolutionary sector consists of Gaddafi as the leader, The Revolutionary Committee, and the Revolutionary Command Council (dnewsglobal). The revolutionary sector is the core power in Libya. The people that are in the revolutionary sector are appointed so they have no term of office (dne wsglobal). On the other hand the â€Å"Jamahiriya sector†, is for the people it is the Libyan congress and is the legislative part of the two sectors. The people that serve the Jamahiriya sector are elected every four years (dnewsglobal). Along with everything else Muammar Gaddafi wrote a â€Å"green book† which outlines the three basic understanding of democracy on the basis of â€Å"people’s power†, â€Å"economic Socialism† and â€Å"third international theory. †(dnewsglobal) The book is a very controversial book because the green book promotes the system of direct democracy based on the formation of people’s committees. Although there are two committees that runs the core of Libya it always come down to one person which is Muammar Gaddafi and forty-two years of power is far from a democracy. Civil War Two weeks into February a human rights activist name Fathi Tarbel was arrested (CNN). The people of Libya were outraged and they began to protest outside of the police headquarters in Benghazi in attempt to free Tarbel. The protest started with 200 people but quickly rose to about 600 people. Things took a major turn when Libyan police came out dressed in civilian clothes to break up the protest. They dispensed tear gas, hot water and they hit the protesters with baton sticks. Gaddafi began to use his air force to calm things down. He ordered an helicopter to fire rapidly on the protesters in Benghazi. The protesters began to fight force wit force by packing a car with explosives with the hopes of breaking into a nearby military camp (CNN). The protest spread to other parts of Libya in Quryna African mercenaries opened fire on the civilians in Tajourea (CNN). In the countries capitol war planes and helicopters conducted air strikes. Even though there were some people against Gaddafi there were still some people for him. The people that wanted him gone began to fight with the people that wanted him to stay. All of the fighting going on eventually spread to Zamiya, Tajura and Misrata (cnn). In Zawiya seventeen people were killed and 150 were wounded (CNN). It was reported that mercenaries were shooting at unarmed civilians in Tajura(CNN). In Tripoli snipers and other security forces were firing at the crowd in an attempt to make them disperse (CNN). Once anti-Gaddafi people took over Zamiya they began to fight back against pro-government people. The anti-Gaddafi people were taking over Libya and Gaddafi had enough by stating â€Å"they play hard I also play hard. I will survive until the last drop of blood. † He ordered Libyan aircrafts to drop bombs were the rebels had took over. He ordered mortar and machine gun attacks. Muammar Gadaffi growing very upset began to bomb places just to make sure there were no rebels there. A CNN witness stated that â€Å"he is bombing his way into Misrata†¦he doesn’t care if all of the people there are dead by the end of the day (CNN). † The rebels managed to get their hands on anti-aircraft weapons in an attempt to fight back some of the air attacks ordered by Gaddafi (CNN). Since the united nations ordered a cease fire and a no-fly zone(CNN) Gaddafi took his attacks on more of an ground mission. Despite the international orders Libyan forces continued to fire mortars and heavy fire into the city of Misrata to try and take control back of lost land. The human watch has reported Gaddafi forces placed dozens of land mines outside the city of Ajdabiya (CNN). Everyone has their own view on the Libyan civil war even the media. The Medias perspective on the Libyan civil war is that it is unacceptable. They feel that Muammar Gaddafi’s tactics are completely out of line for killing his own people. They also feel that the rebels should stop and let international forces handle Muammar Gaddafi. A CNN reporter stated that â€Å"the rebel forces appear to be in disarray. It’s been a very chaotic effort on the part of opposition fighters from the beginning. They have no command-and-control structure and little discipline. † International Diplomacy Many surrounding countries began to take action to distance them from Libya. The Arab League suspended all Libyan delegates to attend their meetings (euronews). Since Libya is a country within the United Nations one of their responsibilities is to protect its population and with all of the killing of their citizens Libya is clearly not upholding that responsibility. The United Nations Security Council decided to put some sanctions against Libya by putting a travel ban and freezing the assets of Muammar Gaddafi’s family and other Libyan figure heads (euronews). Since Gaddafi could not comply with the reminder made earlier to protect its population, the United Nations General Assembly unanimously suspended Libya from the human rights council (foxnews). The United Nations Security Council international criminal court opened an investigation against Muammar Gaddafi, his sons, and his close political circle for crimes against humanity. Muammar Gaddafi and his family assets were frozen in certain countries (euronews). The United States response to the Libyan problem was that it was unacceptable. President Barack Obama said that â€Å"Muammar Gaddafi has lost the legitimacy to rule and need to do what is right by his country and leave now (cbsnews). † Twenty-seven leaders of the European Union countries put together a no-fly zone request with the support of the Arab league and the United Nations. The no-fly zone was passed unanimously. In an attempt to help the civilians of Libya American, French and British navies and air forces launched cruise missiles and airstrikes against Libyan military positions and their communication facilities (CNN). Conclusion After reviewing my information and observing it I came to the conclusion that Muammar Gaddafi needs to go. Forty-Two years has been long enough for Gaddafi there should be another leader for the country of Libya from the beginning he has been changing things in Libya and he now has to recognize that there needs to be a change in leadership for Libya. The people have clearly spoken and they are ready for a new leader. From my perspective of the situation in Libya I believe that it is unacceptable. No leader from any country should be allowed to kill his people and not expect to be checked about it. Since Libya is a part of the United Nations they should up hold the united nation laws one of them being â€Å"protect your population†. Muammar Gaddafi is clearly not upholding that law. I also believe that there should be more discipline to handle the situation in Libya. I don’t think that rebels should be the ones to take care of the work because they have no training and especially no discipline. For the rebels there is no sense of organization because they don’t have communication abilities the Gaddafi has. While I don’t believe that a country should go to war with Libya I do believe that troops from different countries put together should go in and try to deter the situation. Even though the United Nations put up sanctions like the no-fly zone and the countries that support the no-fly zone is helping by sending air strikes and other forms of attack the innocent people of Libya have suffered enough it has been going on since February and it needs to end now.

One of the Greatest Founding Fathers of America

Alexander Hamilton was one of the Continental Army officers, who served George Washington during the American war of Independence. Hamilton prevailed over the greatest difficulties and miseries like penury and illegitimacy, while gaining the auspicious position as aide-de-camp to George Washington. Hamilton and Washington work hand in hand for more than quarter of century during the Revolutionary War, Hamilton helped Washington in framing the Constitution, and finally the Presidency of the US. The unyielding reputation Alexander Hamilton had enjoyed during the Revolutionary War put him among the greatest heroes of American history.Hamilton was the strongest advocate of the Constitution, and his contribution to the substance of American government is incomparable. Even today after the passage of two centuries, Hamilton’s importance remains unmatched. He will always be remembered for his financial prowess, principled politics, intellectual depth, and hard work. $10 bill of US cu rrency still reminds us of the only non-presidential face besides Franklin to appear on currency note. Hamilton’s Early Life Alexander Hamilton’s early life was not an auspicious by any means; he was born in 1755 in the British West Indies.His father, James Hamilton, was a merchant, could not come to America because of debt. Hamilton’s mother, Rachel Fawcett, had to depended upon friends and family to survival in the new land. When Hamilton reached the age of ten, the family moved to a small island of St. Croix, where his mother could not survive more than few months. Although Hamilton could not get the proper school education, but he excelled himself as a mercantile clerk upon the encouragement of friends and relatives. His formal education began when a Presbyterian minister Reverend Hugh Knox gave a sermon, which proved inspiring to him.Reverend Hugh Knox raised funds to send Alexander away to school in 1773. He entered Kings College in 1774. â€Å"He was qui te a mature young man, with a strong grasp on political issues with a working knowledge of British and American government, which he exhibited in a series of anonymous pamphlets so discerning; they were attributed to John Jay. He was only 17 at the time†. (Frisch, 33) Hamilton’s Military Career In 1775, he discontinued his education, and on March 1776 he founded a volunteer military company.He was then commissioned as Captain of the Provincial Company on New York Artillery. He demonstrated immense talent and intellect in his duties with artillery that Nathanael Green took notice of him. â€Å"He was asked to serve on the staff of Lord Stirling, which he declined, and continued his career with the artillery effectively at Long Island, Harlem Heights, White Plains†¦ as well as seeing action at Trenton and Princeton in the New Jersey campaign†. (Cooke, 71) Hamilton did not study military history and tactics in any institution but developed the military acumen o n his own.Hamilton led a successful raid for British cannon in the Battery, the capture of which resulted in the Hearts of Oak becoming an artillery company thereafter. Through his connections with influential New York patriots like Alexander McDougall and John Jay, he raised his own artillery company of sixty men in 1776, drilling them, selecting and purchasing their uniforms with donated funds, and winning their loyalty; they chose the young man as their captain. Association with George Washington In the campaign of 1776 around New York, Hamilton’s proficiency and bravery got the attention of George Washington.After Hamilton's gallantry and heroic accomplishment displayed at the crucial engagement at Trenton, he was appointed an aide to General Washington. In this position his writing skills and keen sense of judgement would prove essential to the highest command in the army. The 1777 winter encampment at Morristown, New Jersey, found Hamilton with an army of well under 10, 000. The army, however, was reinforced steadily as the winter progressed into spring. During this time Hamilton recorded, â€Å"the many deserters coming in from the enemy showed them to be in desperate straits†¦Since the possibility that the French might enter the war in Europe would disincline the British from sending reinforcements overseas†. (Flexner, 77) Hamilton spent the winter of 1777-1778 with Washington and the Continental Army at Valley Forge. Hamilton’s Non-military/Political Career Hamilton began his non-military career soon after the Revolutionary War. After three months of intensive study of the law in Albany, New York, Hamilton was admitted to the bar in July of 1783. Then, after the British army evacuated New York City, he opened his law office at 57 Wall Street.Hamilton also continued with his political endeavors. He served in Congress from 1782 to 1783, was elected to the Continental Congress, and founded the Bank of New York in February of 1784 . Once elected, Hamilton remained politically active all of his life. He prepared but did not present a proposal calling for a convention with full powers to revise the Articles of Confederation. Instead, he became one of the prime movers for calling the Annapolis Convention. At the Annapolis Convention in September of 1786, Hamilton served as one of three delegates from New York.â€Å"He supported Madison in inducing the Convention to exceed its delegated powers and personally drafted the call to summon the Federal Convention of May 1787 at Philadelphia. At that Convention, Hamilton again represented New York as one of three delegates†. (Goebl,, 127) Rivalry with Jefferson Considering Hamilton in relation to Thomas Jefferson is instructive. During their lives, the two men engaged each other in a titanic struggle over the form of the United States government and its relationship to society. In a directly parallel fashion, the public images of the two men also have been in per petual contention.â€Å"Yet while Hamilton and the Federalists were able to seize the reins of power in the 1790s and institute many of their programs, it is Jefferson who, in the long run, captured the imagination and love of the American people†. (Syrett, 82) Last Years Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton had been on friendly terms for years, but after fifteen years of having every political aspiration thwarted by Hamilton, Burr was seething with anger and itching for revenge. Burr's loss in the governor's race led him to challenge Hamilton to a duel. On July 11, 1804 in Weehawken, New Jersey, Burr exacted his revenge on his nemesis with a single shot.Alexander Hamilton died from the wound on July 12, 1804 in New York City. Works Cited Cooke, Jacob E. , The Reports of Alexander Hamilton, New York: Harper & Row, 1964. Frisch, Morton J. , Selected Writings and Speeches of Alexander Hamilton, Washington/London: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1985. Goeb l, Julius, The Law Practice of Alexander Hamilton, Vols. I & II, New York: Columbia University Press, 1964, 1969. Syrett, Harold C. , The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, Vols. 1-27, New York/London: Columbia University Press Flexner, James T. , The Young Hamilton. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1978.