Gile practices can be integrated into Waterfall yields business Thesis

Gile practices can be coordinated into Waterfall yields business favorable circumstances - Thesis Example Reason for Qualitative Research Design Acknowledging that individuals are bosses of their own lives, research on how software engineers and their chiefs embrace to new arrangements and methods should not be possible without interviews those affected by those new approaches and methodology. As Marshall and Rossman (1999) Put it, One can't comprehend human activities without understanding the implying that Participants ascribe to those actionsâ€their contemplations, emotions, convictions, values, and assumptive universes; the scientist, along these lines, needs to comprehend the more profound Perspectives caught through up close and personal connection. (p. 57) Thus, subjective examination is the most ideal approach to see such close to home, singular viewpoints. Subjective examination will in general research fundamental and unmistakable highlights of activities and encounters as lived by an individual. Forests (2004) clarified that subjective examination doesn't occur in the lab, however occurs in reality. It manages how individuals offer importance to their own understanding. Moreover, it expects to decipher the conduct and implications that individuals have given to their experience. Kwiatkowska (2013) saw that the objective is to portray and perhaps clarify occasions and encounters. The run of the mill language utilized are the contextual analysis, field study and setting. The examination types incorporate the contextual investigation research, ethnographic exploration and grounded hypothesis. Subjective examination strategy is utilized in research with a point of social affair a top to bottom getting data. It explores the how and why of creation of choices. In this way, tests are littler yet centered are frequently utilized rather than huge examples. As per Groves (2004), subjective exploration techniques give data on explicit investigations cases and general ends on educated activities. Forests (2004) saw that the subjective analysts essentially are wor ried about procedures and practices instead of the results. The attention is basically on the encounters and view of the members. Subjective exploration includes hands on work regularly whereby perception and recording on occasions are finished. The analyst goes to the site, setting and the individuals truly to watch the subjects normally and typically. As indicated by Kwiatkowska (2013), the technique was viewed as fitting because of its few focal points: 1. It reveals the encounters of the individuals 2. It is more affordable due to the attention on little gatherings 3. It is adaptable The suppositions made for this exploration were: 1. The data accumulated will be adequate to make a general end on how the reconciliation procedure can be. 2. The accessible information on joining of cascade and deft procedures were comprehensively explored since it was hard to separate the examination into little free factors. 3. The examination will contribute a significant measure of information that can be utilized by future scientist to learn the necessities for incorporating dexterous into conventional procedures. Be that as it may, the confinements of the subjective examination strategy approach in an exploration include: 1. Examination mistake is related with overview research particularly where suspicions on an example are made that are mistaken. 2. Subjective examination technique just gathers information on chose gathering of members. This information can't be utilized in making general suspicions. 3. The strategy doesn't permit helpfully for measurable information assortment 4. Subjective rese

Americas Tv Role Model Essay Example For Students

Americas Tv Role Model Essay Americas TV Role ModelWhat America needs is a family like The Waltons, not families like The Simpsons in any event as per President George Bush. A peculiar comment, given that one doesn't ordinarily expect the President of the United States to pass decisions on TV dramatizations like The Waltons, let along animation shows like The Simpsons. The makers of The Simpsons rushed to react, by making Bart Simpson comment that the Simpson family was extremely simply like the Waltons family hanging tight for the finish of the downturn. The Waltons were a fanciful provincial family trusting that the 30s wretchedness will end, while The Simpsons are a postmodern group of today. Both have a place with the inquisitive history of the American TV family. A history so integral to the past, present and eventual fate of American culture that nobody not by any means Presidential applicants, can bear to disregard it. Prior to radio and TV, the family home was a space that could work in relative segregation from open life. In the counsel manuals of Victorian occasions, the perfect white collar class home was one that protected ladies and kids from the shrewd impacts of the open circle. The temperances of frugality and personal development the kind of qualities Bush partners with the Waltons were a nineteenth century thought of easy street. In this vision of the family, men worked in the outside world and had the last say at home; ladies were to be shielded from the outside world however dealt with the everyday business of the home and the bringing up of the kids. Obviously, things dislike that for some individuals, yet this was the perfect that the home manuals banished. Each great working class Victorian home sought to have a piano, and ladies should figure out how to play it show the kids to play it too. The piano was a humanizing impact, as far as anyone knows. With the ascent of industrialism, be that as it may, this changed. The phonograph, the radio lastly the TV supplanted the piano. The temperances of frugality and personal development offered approach to industrialism and the quest for recreation for the good of its own. Preservationists have consistently criticized these progressions and required an arrival to the old ways, yet current private enterprise relies upon its customers to continue onward. Without this move in family life from frugality to spending and from personal development to utilization, the mechanical age may never have continued onward. To be sure, the breakdown of the economy that created the arrival to frugality and order exemplified by The Waltons TV family occurred to some extent since commercialization didnt very take off during the 20s. It was simply after the monstrous extension of assembling that occurred during the war and the purposeful endeavors to transform war creation into shopper creation that the conditions were set for the sort of TV family we know today. The 50s saw a huge blast in lodging development. Youthful couples who had required their lives to be postponed during the war got into home creation intensely. The time of rural rapture had started. One of the new buyer advancements that filled the new rural homes was the TV. By 1955 about 65% of American homes had one. Like every new medium innovations, it started by recreating the mainstream passage of the media it supplanted. Similarly as the early gramophone records were multiplications of well known music corridor tunes; early TV replicated famous radio shows. This is the main period of any new media when it obtains and adjusts the organizations of the old media. Not the entirety of the famous radio projects effectively made the change to TV. Father Knows Best, a notable TV circumstance satire of the fifties, was one program that survived the progress from radio to TV. Strikingly, the ethnic radio sitcoms like AmosnAndy and Life with Luigi didn't. The overall population would tune in to, yet not watch, minorities on TV. The Defeat of Napoleon in Russia EssayThe thought that the white working class family was the standard may have worked during the 50s, when it was for the most part white collar class individuals who possessed the TV sets, however it quit working in the late 60s. A progressively various TV crowd, checking out more conflictual times couldn't be so effectively fulfilled. The appropriate response was another sort of sitcom, spearheaded by Norman Lear. In All in the Family and other Lear appears, the contentions inside the TV crowd are all the more straightforwardly sensationalized on the screen. Television no longer has an obviously recognizable good community ground. The character of Archie Bunker a conspicuous model for Homer Simpson is the great model. To moderate hands on watchers he was the legend of the show. To liberal, instructed individuals he was the object of the joke. Television makers took in two things from All in the Family: that various segments of the crowd can hold ver y inverse perspectives about a similar character, and that the show can perform the contention between their perspectives. Glad Days, the late 70s hit that defeated the late 60s style angry comedies, changed the guidelines indeed. In a period fatigued of contention, Happy Days depended on wistfulness for the 50s when life was more straightforward and everybody got along pleasantly. Cheerful Days wasnt an incredible 50s of Father Knows Best, be that as it may. The character that knows best in Happy Days is the Fonz. With his calfskin coat, lubed back hair and bike, he was a tamed form of Brandos character from The Wild One. Not, at this point a picture of the awful kid outcast, he was presently the pariah who utilizes his separation to assist the TV groups of Happy Days. This isn't the genuine 50s, yet the 50s of TV memory, a cut-up of all the Tv pictures of the 50s, all joined back together in a parody group. Here the onces separate universes of rocknroll and prime time TV are cut a nd combined. The Simpsons cuts and blends pictures of TV families from all times. The longhaired school transport driver in The Simpsons is an animation variant of the Fonz. The Simpsons supports various types of watchers to relate to various characters, and it obtains those characters from numerous different shows. Its accounts change tremendously relying upon the journalists and makers. Some are affectionately replicated 50s style accounts of rural ordinariness. Some are radical postmodern 90s style farces of it. Some are struggle dramatizations, some are profound quality plays of the sort promoted by M*A*S*H. The progressions made to the stock material of the sitcom in The Simpsons are enlightening. Homer has a work area work at the atomic force plant. He is definitely not a manual laborer like Fred Flintstone or Archie Bunker. The female characters are more completely created than Wilma Flintstone or Betty Rubble, and get story lines of their own. Female watchers are urged to relate to post women's activist female characters who stand up for themselves and play a functioning job much of the time. While Bart is acclaimed for his reserved disposition to class, sister Lisa is a persevering understudy. Youthful watchers can relate to being cool or being brilliant. White collar class guardians who esteem great habits and training can relate to Marg and Lisa; while Bart and Homer maintain a conventional average workers figure of speech of a defiant youth followed by a traditionalist, non-angry middle-age. Divided crowds, divided shows divided TV culture. George Bush might be nostalgic for The Waltons, yet it wont be some time before government officials are nostalgic for the TV culture of The Simpsons. It is these thoughts that have made TV families dominate and set the model for genuine families when in the past these jobs were turned around. Todays families are negligible pictures of the thoughts depicted through American TV.

Word of the Week! Subfusc Richmond Writing

Word of the Week! Subfusc Richmond Writing Once again, Dr. Ted Bunn, UR Department of Physics, nominated our word. This time he picked one that was completely new to me. As Dr. Bunn put it in an e-mail: It can just mean gloomy, apparently, but it can also mean the formal clothing worn for examinations and formal occasions at some universities. In Dorothy Sayers’s novel set at Oxford, she uses it to describe clothing in dark, subdued shades, suitable for wearing under academic regalia. I always think of it on graduation day. Only one of my American dictionaries has a brief entry, supporting Professor Bunns conclusion that the word is British English, not its American cousin. The OED Online provides both senses of the word given above, as an adjective or noun. The Latin roots are plain, sub + fuscus (dusky). We have a similar derivation in obfuscate and obfuscation. As recently at 2006, the Times of London noted that Undergraduates at Oxford University have voted by four to one to retain subfusc costume when sitting examinations. They voted again to retain it in 2015.   There are other specificities for subfusc at Oxford. As I learned from this article about the differences between it and Cambridge, subfusc means a kind of uniform of a black suit, white shirt and black robe, plus a black tie for men and a black ribbon for women. The customs surrounded academic regalia have crossed the Atlantic far better than the word itself or, for that matter, the often subfusc weather of the British Isles. While I cannot find meteorological examples of the word, it certainly works in that context. The image of a subfusc sky with the light just returning is my own, taken at twilight in Kenmare, Ireland in 2011.   The academic regalia of Oxford comes to us courtesy of Wikipedia. This blog will continue all summer, so nominate a word by e-mailing me (jessid -at- richmond -dot- edu) or leaving a comment below. See all of our Words of the Week  here.

Livestock Is An Important Sector Of Agriculture - 1221 Words

1.0 Introduction Livestock is an important sector of Agriculture in the Economy of the Developing countries of the world (Barrett Mutambatsere, 2005). A large portion of the households in the developing countries keep livestock(Kirimi, Gitau, Olunga, 2013). These Livestock provides employment to a large portion of the populations that are found in the LDCs and contributes to the gross domestic product (GDP) of the countries((Kumar et al., 2008);Dastagiri et al., 2013). Livestock provides food in the form of animal protein and nutrients. The importance of livestock sector is emphasized by the inclusion of the sector in most of the development plans of these LDC countries(Kenya(RoK), 2011). The LDC mainly relies on agriculture for growth and development of their economies(Pretty Hine, 2001). Most of the households in the LDC are involved in agriculture for the livelihoods(Region Unit, 2005). However, a significant number of these households in LDC are faced by threat of malnutrition and live below the poverty line(Statistics, 2009)(Masai, Mbithi, Mwangi, 2005). In most of the households livestock keeping is done for subsistence reasons and most of the outputs are consumed by the households(Bellemare.M.F Barrett.C, 2006). However in some instances some of the surplus is sold at the market(Barrett Mutambatsere, 2005). The livestock herd sizes are usually limited by resources constraints(Ndoro, J.T., Mudhara, M., Chimonyo, 2014). The small holder households areShow MoreRelatedEmissions Trading Scheme Essay1538 Words   |  7 PagesNew Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme (NZ ETS) is about the environment protect and punishing pollution. ETS is except the agriculture, but agriculture is occupy the half emissions. The article discusses the agriculture should into the ETS and the reason for agriculture. Then, the influence and connect on technology. 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(McCarthy 2001, p.21) . â€Å"Greenhouse gases are accumulating in Earth s atmosphere as a result of human activitiesRead MoreThe Effects Of Animal Agriculture On Our Environment Essay1040 Words   |  5 PagesAnimal Agriculture accounts for much of the issues in our environment today. Most would not think of animal agriculture being the main reason for pollution or greenhouse gasses. The majority of people would agree that the fossil fuels that come from cars are the number one producer for greenhouse gasses. Well think again. I am going to tell you how animal agriculture has affected our atmosphere in a negative way by emitting a large amount of GHGs, and in turn effe cting our climate and speeding upRead MoreA Brief Note On Uganda And Uganda Are Neighbours892 Words   |  4 PagesSouth Sudan. Even though they are within the same region; their development status in agriculture, industrialization, democracy, health, and education economies differ greatly. 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The industry only focuses on their profits instead of the unhygienic condition animals live in and the effectRead MoreThe Nexus Between Women s Land Rights And Food Secu rity Within West African996 Words   |  4 Pagesand food security within West African states (ECOWAS states). The majority of ECOWAS countries sustain their economies through agriculture. In 2012, agriculture accounted for 35% of the region’s Gross Domestic Product (DGP), contributing $6 billion to its foreign trade and represented 16.1% of products and services exported from ECOWAS region (Salifou 2012). Agriculture also created 60% all jobs in the ECOWAS region in 2012. Women accounted for 60-80% of the production, processing and marketing

Government Welfare Should Be Abolished - 1885 Words

Kenneth Gallion Professor Wiemer English 1120 5 May 2015 All Forms of Government Welfare Should be Abolished Welfare is defined as â€Å"practical or financial help that is provided, often by the government, for people or animals that need it† (). Many agencies are currently set up to assist and aid people who are financially in need. Some of these programs include TANF (Temporary Assistance for Needy Families), WIC (Woman, Infants and Children Program) and the Food Stamp program (). All of these programs can be very helpful to people who really need it, however, many issues are present in the American government welfare system. The process that decides whether one receives welfare or not isn’t necessarily the most secure and is a concern with many Americans. A growing number of people seem to be â€Å"cheating† the welfare system by receiving the benefits of it all while being financially and physically stable. Government welfare should be abolished due to its growing percentage of abuse, placing an enormous strain on the middle class, and teaching a set of improper work ethics to the future generation of America. The majority of people on welfare can easily be classified into two categories. The first categorical term covered is called â€Å"rescue welfare† (). The group of people in this category consists of Americans who have had a healthy and steady job all while paying their taxes and insurance without problem. The reason these people enter into the welfareShow MoreRelatedGovernment Assistance For Needy Families867 Words   |  4 Pagesdoes not stop the bills from rolling in especially when there is a family to take care of, in situations like this financial help can really be useful. Welfare programs like the â€Å" temporary assistance for needy families† purpose is give money to a group of parents and dependent children living together in a household. 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New Zealand has had various political ideologies brought in by different governments; such as Social Democracy, Social Liberalism, Neo liberalism, Neo Conservatism and Conservatism. For the basis of this

Social Media and Business Free Essays

string(35) " Media is far from groundbreaking\." Business Horizons (2010) 53, 59—68 www. elsevier. com/locate/bushor Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media Andreas M. We will write a custom essay sample on Social Media and Business or any similar topic only for you Order Now Kaplan *, Michael Haenlein ? ESCP Europe, 79 Avenue de la Republique, F-75011 Paris, France KEYWORDS Social Media; User Generated Content; Web 2. 0; Social networking sites; Virtual worlds Abstract The concept of Social Media is top of the agenda for many business executives today. Decision makers, as well as consultants, try to identify ways in which ? rms can make pro? able use of applications such as Wikipedia, YouTube, Facebook, Second Life, and Twitter. Yet despite this interest, there seems to be very limited understanding of what the term ‘‘Social Media’’ exactly means; this article intends to provide some clari? cation. We begin by describing the concept of Social Media, and discuss how it differs from related concepts such as Web 2. 0 and User Generated Content. Based on this de? nition, we then provide a classi? cation of Social Media which groups applications currently subsumed under the generalized term into more speci? categories by characteris tic: collaborative projects, blogs, content communities, social networking sites, virtual game worlds, and virtual social worlds. Finally, we present 10 pieces of advice for companies which decide to utilize Social Media. # 2009 Kelley School of Business, Indiana University. All rights reserved. 1. The specter of Social Media As of January 2009, the online social networking application Facebook registered more than 175 million active users. To put that number in perspective, this is only slightly less than the population of Brazil (190 million) and over twice the population of Germany (80 million)! At the same time, every minute, 10 hours of content were uploaded to the video sharing platform YouTube. And, the image hosting site Flickr provided access to over 3 billion photographs, making the world-famous Louvre * Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: mail@andreaskaplan. eu (A. M. Kaplan), haenlein@escpeurope. eu (M. Haenlein). Museum’s collection of 300,000 objects seem tiny in comparison. According to Forrester Research, 75% of Internet surfers used ‘‘Social Media’’ in the second quarter of 2008 by joining social networks, reading blogs, or contributing reviews to shopping sites; this represents a signi? ant rise from 56% in 2007. The growth is not limited to teenagers, either; members of Generation X, now 35—44 years old, increasingly populate the ranks of joiners, spectators, and critics. It is therefore reasonable to say that Social Media represent a revolutionary new trend that should be of interest to companies operating in onlin e space–—or any space, for that matter. Yet, not overly many ? rms seem to act comfortably in a world where consumers can speak so freely 0007-6813/$ — see front matter # 2009 Kelley School of Business, Indiana University. All rights reserved. doi:10. 1016/j. bushor. 2009. 09. 003 60 with each other and businesses have increasingly less control over the information available about them in cyberspace. Today, if an Internet user types the name of any leading brand into the Google search, what comes up among the top ? ve results typically includes not only the corporate webpage, but also the corresponding entry in the online encyclopedia Wikipedia. Here, for example, customers can read that the 2007 model of Hasbro’s Easy-Bake Oven may lead to serious burns on children’s hands and ? gers due to a poorly-designed oven door, and that the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company has been accused of using child labor in its Liberian rubber factory. Historically, companies were able to control the information available about them through strategically placed press announcements and good public relations managers. Today, however, ? rms have been increasingly relegated to the sidelines as mere observers, having neither the knowledge nor the chance–—or, sometimes, even the right–—to alter publicly posted comments provided by their customers. Wikipedia, for example, expressly forbids the participation of ? ms in its online community. Such an evolution may not be surprising. After all, the Internet started out as nothing more than a giant Bulletin Board System (BBS) that allowed users to exchange software, data, messages, and news with each other. The late 1990s saw a popularity surge in homepages, whereby the Average Joe could share information about his private life; today’s equivalent would be the weblog, or blog. The era of corporate web pages and e-commerce started relatively recently with the launch of Amazon and eBay in 1995, and got a right ticking-off only 6 years later when the dot-com bubble burst in 2001. The current trend toward Social Media can therefore be seen as an evolution back to the Internet’s roots, since it retransforms the World Wide Web to what it was initially created for: a platform to facilitate information exchange between users. But does that mean that Social Media is just old wine in new bottles? Probably not! As we will delve into further, the technical advances that have been made over the past 20 years now enable a form of virtual content sharing that is fundamentally different from, and more powerful than, the BBS of the late 1970s. This article discusses the challenges and opportunities that emerge from this evolution for ? rms, and provides structure to better understand the rapidly evolving ? eld of Social Media. We begin by providing a de? nition and classi? cation of Social Media by looking at their historical roots, technical speci? cities, and differences from other entities such as Web 2. 0 and User Generated Content. We then focus on six types of Social Media–—collaborative projects, blogs, A. M. Kaplan, M. Haenlein content communities, social networking sites, virtual game worlds, and virtual social worlds–—and present ways in which companies can ef? iently make use of these applications. Based on this analysis, we then derive a set of 10 recommendations companies should follow when thinking about developing their own Social Media strategy, be it with respect to these aforementioned types or other applications which might emerge in the future. 2. What is Social Media– —And what is it not? As highlighted, the idea behind Social Media is far from groundbreaking. You read "Social Media and Business" in category "Essay examples" Nevertheless, there seems to be confusion among managers and academic researchers alike as to what exactly should be included under this term, and how Social Media differ from the seemingly-interchangeable related concepts of Web 2. and User Generated Content. It therefore makes sense to take a step back and provide insight regarding where Social Media come from and what they include. By 1979, Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis from Duke University had created the Usenet, a worldwide discussion system that allowed Internet users to post public messages. Yet, the era of Social Media as we understand it today probably started about 20 years earlier, when Bruce and Susan Abelson founded ‘‘Open Diary,’’ an early social networking site that brought together online diary writers into one community. The term ‘‘weblog’’ was ? st used at the same time, and truncated as ‘‘blog’’ a year later when one blogger jokingly transformed the noun ‘‘weblog’’ into the sentence ‘‘we blog. ’’ The growing availability of high-speed Internet access further added to the popularity of the concept, leading to the creation of social networking sites such as MySpace (in 2003) and Facebook (in 2004). This, in turn, coined the term ‘‘Social Media,’’ and contributed to the prominence it has today. The most recent addition to this glamorous grouping has been so-called ‘‘virtual worlds’’: computerbased simulated environments inhabited by threedimensional avatars. Perhaps the best known virtual world is that of Linden Lab’s Second Life (Kaplan Haenlein, 2009c). Although the list of the aforementioned applications may give some idea about what is meant by Social Media, a formal de? nition of the term ? rst requires drawing a line to two related concepts that are frequently named in conjunction with it: Web 2. 0 and User Generated Content. Web 2. 0 is a term that was ? rst used in 2004 to describe a new way in which software developers and end-users started to Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media utilize the World Wide Web; that is, as a platform whereby content and applications are no longer created and published by individuals, but instead are continuously modi? ed by all users in a participatory and collaborative fashion. While applications such as personal web pages, Encyclopedia Britannica Online, and the idea of content publishing belong to the era of Web 1. 0, they are replaced by blogs, wikis, and collaborative projects in Web 2. 0. Although Web 2. 0 does not refer to any speci? technical update of the World Wide Web, there is a set of basic functionalities that are necessary for its functioning. Among them are Adobe Flash (a popular method for adding animation, interactivity, and audio/video streams to web pages), RSS (Really Simple Syndication, a family of web feed formats used to publish frequently updated content, such as blog entries or news headlines, in a standardized format), and AJAX (Asynchronous Java Script, a technique to retrieve data from web servers asynchronously, allowing the update of web content without interfering with the display and behavior of the whole page). For the purpose of our article, we consider Web 2. 0 as the platform for the evolution of Social Media. When Web 2. 0 represents the ideological and technological foundation, User Generated Content (UGC) can be seen as the sum of all ways in which people make use of Social Media. The term, which achieved broad popularity in 2005, is usually applied to describe the various forms of media content that are publicly available and created by end-users. According to the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2007), UGC needs to ful? l three basic requirements in order to be considered as such: ? rst, it needs to be published either on a publicly accessible website or on a social networking site accessible to a selected group of people; second, it needs to show a certain amount of creative effort; and ? nally, it needs to have been created outside of professional routines and practices. The ? rst condition excludes content exchanged in e-mails or instant messages; the second, mere replications of already existing content (e. g. , posting a copy of an existing newspaper article on a personal blog without any modi? ations or commenting); and the third, all content that has been created with a commercial market context in mind. While UGC has already been available prior to Web 2. 0, as discussed above, the combination of technological drivers (e. g. , increased broadband availability and hardware capacity), economic drivers (e. g. , increased availability of tools for the creation of UGC), and social drivers (e. g. , rise of a generation of ‘‘digital natives’’ and ‘‘screenagers’’: younger age groups with substantial technical knowledge and 1 willingness to engage online) make UGC nowadays fundamentally different from what was observed in the early 1980s. Based on these clari? cations of Web 2. 0 and UGC, it is now straightforward to give a more detailed de? nition of what we mean by Social Media. I n our view–—and as used herein–—Social Media is a group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2. 0, and that allow the creation and exchange of User Generated Content. Within this general de? ition, there are various types of Social Media that need to be distinguished further. However, although most people would probably agree that Wikipedia, YouTube, Facebook, and Second Life are all part of this large group, there is no systematic way in which different Social Media applications can be categorized. Also, new sites appear in cyberspace every day, so it is important that any classi? cation scheme takes into account applications which may be forthcoming. To create such a classi? cation scheme, and to do so in a systematic manner, we rely on a set of theories in the ? ld of media research (social presence, media richness) and social processes (self-presentation, self-disclosure), the two key elemen ts of Social Media. Regarding the media-related component of Social Media, social presence theory (Short, Williams, Christie, 1976) states that media differ in the degree of ‘‘social presence’’–—de? ned as the acoustic, visual, and physical contact that can be achieved–—they allow to emerge between two communication partners. Social presence is in? uenced by the intimacy (interpersonal vs. mediated) and immediacy (asynchronous vs. ynchronous) of the medium, and can be expected to be lower for mediated (e. g. , telephone conversation) than interpersonal (e. g. , face-to-face discussion) and for asynchronous (e. g. , e-mail) than synchronous (e. g. , live chat) communications. The higher the social presence, the larger the social in? uence that the communication partners have on each other’s behavior. Closely related to the idea of social presence is the concept of media richness. Media richness theory (Daft Lengel, 1986) is based on the assumption that the goal of any communication is the resolution of ambiguity and the reduction of uncertainty. It states that media differ in the degree of richness they possess–—that is, the amount of information they allow to be transmitted in a given time interval–—and that therefore some media are more effective than others in resolving ambiguity and uncertainty. Applied to the context of Social Media, we assume that a ? rst classi? cation can be made based on the richness of the medium and the degree of social presence it allows. With respect to the social dimension of Social Media, the concept of self-presentation states that 2 in any type of social interaction people have the desire to control the impressions other people form of them (Goffman, 1959). On the one hand, this is done with the objective of in? uencing others to gain rewards (e. g. , make a positive impression on your future in-laws); on the other hand, it is driven by a wish to create an image that is consistent with one’s personal identity (e. g. , wearing a fashionable out? t in order t o be perceived as young and trendy). The key reason why people decide to create a personal webpage is, for example, the wish to present themselves in cyberspace (Schau Gilly, 2003). Usually, such a presentation is done through self-disclosure; that is, the conscious or unconscious revelation of personal information (e. g. , thoughts, feelings, likes, dislikes) that is consistent with the image one would like to give. Self-disclosure is a critical step in the development of close relationships (e. g. , during dating) but can also occur between complete strangers; for example, when speaking about personal problems with the person seated next to you on an airplane. Applied to the context of Social Media, we assume that a second classi? ation can be made based on the degree of self-disclosure it requires and the type of self-presentation it allows. Combining both dimensions leads to a classi? cation of Social Media which we have visualized in Table 1. With respect to social presence and media richness, applications such as collaborative projects (e. g. , Wikipedia) and blogs score lowest, as they are often text-based and hence only allow for a relatively simple exch ange. On the next level are content communities (e. g. , YouTube) and social networking sites (e. g. Facebook) which, in addition to text-based communication, enable the sharing of pictures, videos, and other forms of media. On the highest level are virtual game and social worlds (e. g. , World of Warcraft, Second Life), which try to replicate all dimensions of face-to-face interactions in a virtual environment. Regarding self-presentation and self-disclosure, blogs usually score higher than collaborative projects, as the latter tend to be focused on speci? c content domains. Table 1. A. M. Kaplan, M. Haenlein In a similar spirit, social networking sites allow for more self-disclosure than content communities. Finally, virtual social worlds require a higher level of self-disclosure than virtual game worlds, as the latter are ruled by strict guidelines that force users to behave in a certain way (e. g. , as warriors in an imaginary fantasy land). We will now provide more detail on each of these six different types of Social Media, and discuss the challenges and opportunities they offer companies. 3. The challenges and opportunities of Social Media 3. 1. Collaborative projects Collaborative projects enable the joint and simultaneous creation of content by many end-users and are, in this sense, probably the most democratic manifestation of UGC. Within collaborative projects, one differentiates between wikis–—that is, websites which allow users to add, remove, and change text-based content–—and social bookmarking applications–—which enable the group-based collection and rating of Internet links or media content. Exemplary applications within this category include the online encyclopedia Wikipedia, a wiki currently available in more than 230 different languages, and the social bookmarking web service Delicious, which allows the storage and sharing of web bookmarks. The main idea underlying collaborative projects is that the joint effort of many actors leads to a better outcome than any actor could achieve individually; this is similar to the ef? cient-market hypothesis in behavioral ? nance (Fama, 1970). From a corporate perspective, ? rms must be aware that collaborative projects are trending toward becoming the main source of information for many consumers. As such, although not everything written on Wikipedia may actually be true, it is believed to be true by more and more Internet users. This may be particularly crucial as regards corporate crises. For example, Classi? ation of Social Media by social presence/media richness and self-presentation/self-disclosure Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media when online book retailer Amazon started to test the idea of dynamic pricing, comments declaring such a practice as unfair showed up instantaneously under the Wikipedia entry on ‘‘time-based prici ng. ’’ Yet, collaborative projects also provide some unique opportunities for ? rms. Finnish handset manufacturer Nokia, for instance, uses internal wikis to update employees on project status and to trade ideas, which are used by about 20% of its 68,000 staff members. Likewise, American computer software company Adobe Systems maintains a list of bookmarks to company-related websites and conversations on Delicious. 63 3. 3. Content communities The main objective of content communities is the sharing of media content between users. Content communities exist for a wide range of different media types, including text (e. g. , BookCrossing, via which 750,000+ people from over 130 countries share books), photos (e. g. , Flickr), videos (e. g. , YouTube), and PowerPoint presentations (e. g. , Slideshare). Users on content communities are not required to create a personal pro? e page; if they do, these pages usually only contain basic information, such as the date they joined the community and the number of videos shared. From a corporate viewpoint, content communities carry the risk of being used as platforms for the sharing of copyright-protected materials. While major content communities have rules in place to ban and remove such illegal content, it is dif? cult to avoid popular videos–—such as recent episodes of comedy dramas–—being uploaded to YouTube only hours after they have been aired on television. On the positive side, the high popularity of content communities makes them a very attractive contact channel for many ? rms; this is easy to believe when one considers that YouTube serves over 100 million videos per day. In 2007, Procter Gamble organized a contest for its over-the-counter drug Pepto-Bismol, whereby users were encouraged to upload to YouTube 1-minute videos of themselves singing about the ailments Pepto-Bismol counteracts, including heartburn and nausea. In a similar spirit, kitchen appliances manufacturer Blendtec became popular for its bevy of inexpensive ‘‘Will it blend? ’ videos, which have been watched by millions of people. Other ? rms, such as Cisco and Google, rely on content communities to share recruiting videos, as well as keynote speeches and press announcements, with their employees and investors. 3. 2. Blogs Blogs, which represent the earliest form of Social Media, are special types of websites that usually display date-stamped entri es in reverse chronological order (OECD, 2007). They are the Social Media equivalent of personal web pages and can come in a multitude of different variations, from personal diaries describing the author’s life to summaries of all relevant information in one speci? content area. Blogs are usually managed by one person only, but provide the possibility of interaction with others through the addition of comments. Due to their historical roots, text-based blogs are still by far the most common. Nevertheless, blogs have also begun to take different media formats. For example, San Francisco-based Justin. tv allows users to create personalized television channels via which they can broadcast images from their webcam in real time to other users. Many companies are already using blogs to update employees, customers, and shareholders on developments they consider to be important. Jonathan Schwartz, CEO of Sun Microsystems, maintains a personal blog to improve the transparency of his company; so does automotive giant General Motors. Yet, as is the case with collaborative projects, blogs do not come without risks. These generally present in two fashions. First, customers who–—for one reason or another–—turn out to be dissatis? ed with or disappointed by the company’s offerings may decide to engage in virtual complaints in the form of protest websites or blogs (Ward Ostrom, 2006), which results in the availability of potentially damaging information in online space. Second, once ? rms encourage employees to be active on blogs, they may need to live with the consequences of staff members writing negatively about the ? rm. Microsoft’s former ‘‘technical evangelist’’ Robert Scoble, for example, had a tendency to ? ercely criticize the products of his employer–— before he decided to leave the Redmond-based software company in 2006. 3. 4. Social networking sites Social networking sites are applications that enable users to connect by creating personal information pro? les, inviting friends and colleagues to have access to those pro? es, and sending e-mails and instant messages between each other. These personal pro? les can include any type of information, including photos, video, audio ? les, and blogs. According to Wikipedia, the largest social networking sites are U. S. -based Facebook (initially founded by Mark Zuckerberg to stay in touch with his fellow students from Harvard University) and MySpace (with 1,500 employees and more than 250 million registered users). Social networking sites are of such high popularity, speci? cally among younger Internet 4 users, that the term ‘‘Facebook addict’’ has been included in the Urban Dictionary, a collaborative project focused on developing a slang dictionary for the English language. Several companies are already using social networking sites to support the creation of brand communities (Muniz O’Guinn, 2001) or for marketing research in the context of netnography (Kozinets, 2002). To promote the movie ‘‘Fred Claus,’’ a 2007 Christmas comedy ? lm, Warner Brothers created a Facebook pro? le via which visitors could watch trailers, download graphics, and play games. Likewise, the Adidas custom soccer community on MySpace allows visitors to associate themselves with one of two brands of elite soccer cleats produced by the German sports apparel manufacturer, and to access product reviews and information on professional soccer players who play using ‘‘their’’ shoes. Some ? rms even go one step further and use Facebook as a distribution channel. Consider U. S. -based ? orist 1-800-Flowers. com, which offers a widget on Facebook called ‘‘Gimme Love’’ whereby users can send ‘‘virtual bouquets’’ to friends or, with a click of the mouse, be directly transferred to the company’s website to send real ? wers. A. M. Kaplan, M. Haenlein hunter–—starts to more and more closely resemble their real life personality. Besides their use for ingame advertising (similar in idea to product placement in blockbuster movies), the high popularity of virtual game worlds can also be leveraged in more traditional communication campaigns. Japanese automotive giant Toyota, for example, used pictures and mechanics from the World of Warcraft application in its latest Tundra commercial to reach the 2. 5 million players in the U. S. lone. 3. 6. Virtual social worlds The second group of virtual worlds, often referred to as virtual social worlds, allows inhabitants to choose their behavior more freely and essentially live a virtual life similar to their real life. As in virtual game worlds, virtual social world users appear in the form of avatars and interact in a three-dimensional virtual environment; however, in this realm, there are no rules restricting the range of possible interactions, except for basic physical laws such as gravity. This allows for an unlimited range of self presentation strategies, and it has been shown that with increasing usage intensity and consumption experience, users of virtual social worlds–—or ‘‘residents,’’ as they prefer to be called–—show behavior that more and more closely mirrors the one observed in real life settings (Haenlein Kaplan, 2009; Kaplan Haenlein, 2009a, 2009b). Arguably, the most prominent example of virtual social worlds is the Second Life application, founded and managed by the San Francisco-based company Linden Research Inc. Besides doing everything that is possible in real life (e. g. , speaking to other avatars, taking a walk, enjoying the virtual sunshine), Second Life also allows users to create content (e. g. , to design virtual clothing or furniture items) and to sell this content to others in exchange for Linden Dollars, a virtual currency traded against the U. S. Dollar on the Second Life Exchange. Some residents are so successful in this task that the virtual money earned that way complements their real life income. Virtual social worlds offer a multitude of opportunities for companies in marketing (advertising/communication, virtual product sales/v-Commerce, marketing research), and human resource and internal process management; for a more detailed discussion, see Kaplan and Haenlein (2009c). 3. 5. Virtual game worlds Virtual worlds are platforms that replicate a threedimensional environment in which users can appear in the form of personalized avatars and interact with each other as they would in real life. In this sense, virtual worlds are probably the ultimate manifestation of Social Media, as they provide the highest level of social presence and media richness of all applications discussed thus far. Virtual worlds come in two forms. The ? rst, virtual game worlds, require their users to behave according to strict rules in the context of a massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG). These applications have gained popularity in recent years, as standard game consoles–—such as Microsoft’s X-Box and Sony’s PlayStation–—now allow simultaneous play among a multitude of users around the globe. Examples of virtual game worlds include the cod-medieval ‘‘World of Warcraft,’’ which counts around 8. 5 million subscribers who explore the virtual planet of Azeroth in the form of humans, dwarves, orcs, or night elves, to ? ght monsters or to search for treasure; and Sony’s EverQuest, in which 16 different races of players (e. g. , wizards, clerics) travel the fantasy world of Norrath. The rules of such games usually limit the degree of self-presentation and self-disclosure possible, although some users spend so much time with these applications that their character–—be it a warrior, a wizard, or a dragon . Ten pieces of advice for companies deciding to use Social Media Social Media is a very active and fast-moving domain. What may be up-to-date today could have Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media disappeared from the virtual landscape tomorrow. It is therefore crucial for ? rms to have a set of guidelines that can be applied to any form of Social Media, whether they are part of the aforementioned list or not. Next, we provide such a set of recommendations. Given that Social Media have both a social- and a media-component, we split our advice into two sections: ? e points about using media and ? ve points about being social. 65 4. 1. Five points about using media 4. 1. 1. Choose carefully There are dozens–—if not hundreds–—of Social Media applications, and new ones are appearing on the horizon every day. If you still need time to run your core business, you simply cannot participate in them all, especially since ‘‘being active’’ is one key requirement of success (see below). Choosing the right medium for any given purpose depends on the target group to be reached and the message to be communicated. On the one hand, each Social Media application usually attracts a certain group of people and ? rms should be active wherever their customers are present. For example, if your main target audience is book lovers, a content community via which users share self-written novels or poems is likely better suited to your purpose than a virtual world which centers on ? ghting dragons and ? nding treasures. On the other hand, there may be situations whereby certain features are necessary to ensure effective communication, and these features are only offered by one speci? c application. For example, when the U. S. Army undertook an initiative in 2007 to reach the Hispanic community, it decided to utilize the social networking site Univision rather than the more popular Facebook. This choice was driven in part by the fact that Univision–—a Spanish-language television network in the U. S. and Puerto Rico–—is the social networking application with the largest Latin American audience, due to an extensive range of telenovelas and Mexican programs produced by Grupo Televisa. However, another reason Univision was chosen is because it offers a moderating service which checks comments from users for appropriateness before posting them on the site. In contrast, other applications, including Facebook, allow users to post messages without supervision. 4. 1. 2. Pick the application, or make your own Once you know which game you’re playing, the next decision involves whether to make or buy. In some cases, it might just be best to join an existing Social Media application and bene? t from its popularity and user base. After all, there is no need to reinvent the wheel if somebody has already done it, especially given that Social Media show positive network externalities in the sense that they get more attractive to join the more participants they already have. But in some cases, the right application might just not be available yet. Japan’s Fuji? lm, for example, recently launched its own social network to build a community of photo enthusiasts. In a similar spirit, U. S. -based department store ? rm Sears collaborated with MTV music television to create a social network around back-to-school shopping. Yet, whatever the ultimate decision–—to buy, make, or both–— it is vital that there is an understanding of the basic idea behind Social Media. It’s all about participation, sharing, and collaboration, rather than straightforward advertising and selling. 4. 1. 3. Ensure activity alignment Sometimes you may decide to rely on various Social Media, or a set of different applications within the same group, in order to have the largest possible reach. In this case, it is crucial to ensure that your Social Media activities are all aligned with each other. A prime example in this context is computer manufacturer Dell and its ‘‘Digital Nomads’’ campaign. Dell uses a combination of social networking sites (Facebook, LinkedIn), blogs, and content communities (YouTube videos) to show how its range of laptop computers enable individuals to become a nomadic mobile workforce. In a similar spirit, Chrysler’s Jeep brand connects with its customers by combining photos shared on the content community Flickr, with groups on social networking sites such as MySpace and Facebook. Using different contact channels can be a worthwhile and pro? table strategy. But remember: one goal of communication is the resolution of ambiguity and reduction of uncertainty, and nothing is more confusing than contradicting messages across different channels. 4. 1. 4. Media plan integration What is true for different types of Social Media also holds for the relationship between Social Media and traditional media: Integration is key! While you may consider these two arenas to be completely different, in customers’ eyes they are both part of the same: your corporate image. Consider the actions of soft drink giant Coca-Cola. In June 2006, a pair of performance artists shot a video featuring a series of geysers they created by dropping Mentos brand mints into 2-liter bottles of Coke; the clip became a major hit on YouTube. Realizing customers’ enthusiasm for this performance, Coca-Cola fostered the sensation by airing the video on late-night television and ensuring broad digital distribution across different content communities. Besides the advantage of 66 high impact/low cost media coverage, the campaign also resulted in a measurable sales uplift. 4. 1. 5. Access for all Although this might sound elementary, once the ? rm has decided to utilize Social Media applications, it is worth checking that all employees may actually access them. Commonly, ? rms block Facebook, YouTube, and Second Life on corporate PCs for fear that staff might spend too much time networking instead of working. While this is certainly a consideration, it cannot imply that employees must have special permission to be able to access the company blog. At the same time, there is a need to curtail the possibility of the entire organization spending all its time producing funny videos and uploading them to YouTube. One possible approach involves de? ning groups of employees whose primary objective is the management of corporate Social Media; all other staff members are treated as occasional participants. Under this scenario, the ? rst group is given administrator rights–—which allows the opening of new discussion threads and deletion of inappropriate posts–—while the second group is not. Also, at some point, it will be necessary to develop certain guidelines for Social Media usage; as done, for instance, by ‘‘Big Blue’’ IBM, which has a corporate charta for appropriate behavior within Second Life. For example, it is important to highlight that every employee needs to identify himself or herself as such when posting a comment on the corporate blog. Otherwise, end-consumers could get the impression that anonymous accounts are used to enable employees to post fake messages and overly-positive feedback, which could severely damage the credibility of your whole Social Media campaign. A. M. Kaplan, M. Haenlein else’s than it is about engaging others in open and active conversation. Participants on Social Media applications have the desire to actively engage and to become both producers and consumers of information, so-called ‘‘prosumers’’ (Tof? er, 1980). Be considerate of this need and act accordingly. 4. 2. 2. Be interesting Let’s face it: nobody is interested in speaking to a boring person. As such, if you would like your customers to engage with you, you need to give them a reason for doing so–—one which extends beyond saying you are the best airline in town, or manufacture the most robust kitchen blender. The ? st step is to listen to your customers. Find out what they would like to hear; what they would like to talk about; what they might ? nd interesting, enjoyable, and valuable. Then, develop and post content that ? ts those expectations. Coffee powerhouse Starbucks, for example, created the ‘‘My Starbucks I dea’’ platform, via which customers can submit new ideas for the company. These ideas are subsequently voted on by other users, with the winners being considered for implementation by Starbucks top management. As stated by Oscar Wilde in his novel, The Picture of Dorian Grey: The one sin for which there is no forgiveness is ennui. . 2. 3. Be humble Never forget that Social Media existed before you decided to engage in them; indeed, in many cases, even before you knew about their existence. In this light, do not expect that you know better how to use them than others who have spent countless hours on Facebook or Second Life, for example. Before you enter any application, ? rst take some time to discover it and to learn about its history and basic rules. Only once you have gained the necessary understanding, start to participate. When aerospace and defense ? rm Boeing decided to launch its ? st corporate blog, the site was designed such that users were not allowed to com ment on what they saw. Yet, interaction and feedback are critical elements of all Social Media, blogs included. Hence, many readers perceived the Boeing blog as a fake, and simply corporate advertising in disguise. If there is one certain path to failure, it involves thinking that Social Media is just about posting existing TV spots on YouTube or putting prefabricated press announcements on corporate blogs. 4. 2. 4. Be unprofessional Have you ever noticed that in Hollywood blockbuster ? ms, it’s not usually the handsome guy who ends up with the girl, but rather the clumsy, charming one? The same goes for Social Media, and ? rms 4. 2. Five points about being social 4. 2. 1. Be active If you want to develop a relationship with someone, it is always advisable to take the lead and to be active. Social Media are all about sharing and interaction, so ensure that your content is always fresh and that you engage in discussions with your customers. Consider the aforementioned blog kep t by Sun Microsystems CEO Jonathan Schwartz. Via this outlet, the ? urehead discusses–—on an ongoing basis–—his corporate strategy, new product development projects, and company values, and replies directly to correspondence received. In considering your Social Media efforts, be aware that ? rm involvement must extend beyond responding to negative comments and defending product offerings. Social Media is less about explaining why your baking mix, detergent, or shampoo is better than anyone Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media would be wise to avoid overly-professional content offerings. There’s no need to spend $100,000 to design the perfect MySpace presence, or hire a professional writer to manage your corporate blog. Instead, try to blend in with other users and don’t be afraid to make mistakes! Bill Marriott, Chairman and CEO of the Marriott International Hotel chain, uses his blog, for example, to post regular updates and stories from his travels to Marriott properties around the world–—very much in the same way as would a work colleague when describing her last vacation. Social Media users are people like you, who understand that things do not always go smoothly. And, if you’re nice to them, they may even give you free advice on how to do it better the next time. 4. 2. 5. Be honest Last but not least, be honest and respect the rules of the game. Some Social Media–—such as Wikipedia–— may not allow companies to be involved, so do not try to force your way in. Consider Anheuser-Busch, owner of SeaWorld marine mammal parks. Anheuser-Busch tried to ‘‘rectify’’ misleading information on Wikipedia through the use of PR ? rms, and failed miserably at it. Never expect that other participants may not ? d out who stands behind some anonymous user account; after all, you’re dealing with some of the most technologically sophisticated people on the planet. 67 5. Nothing to lose but their chains Today, everything is about Social Media. Some industry gurus claim that if you do not participate in Facebook, YouTube, and Second Life, you are not part of cyberspace anymore. Social Media allow ? rms to engage in timely and direct end-consumer contact at relatively low cost and higher levels of ef? ciency than can be achieved with more traditional communication tools. This makes Social Media not only relevant for large multinational ? rms, but also for small and medium sized companies, and even nonpro? t and governmental agencies. Using Social Media is not an easy task and may require new ways of thinking, but the potential gains are far from being negligible. Dell, for example, states that its use of Twitter–—a micro blogging application that allows sending out short, text-based posts of 140 characters or less–—has generated $1 million in incremental revenue due to sales alerts. Some ? ms may even be too successful for their own good, as illustrated by Burger King’s ‘‘Whopper Sacri? ce’’ campaign: In December 2008, the fast food giant developed a Facebook application which gave users a free Whopper sandwich for every 10 friends they deleted from their Facebook network. The campaign was adopted by over 20,000 users, resulting in the sacri? cing of 233,906 friends in exchange for free bur gers. Only one month later, in January 2009, Facebook shut down Whopper Sacri? ce, citing privacy concerns. Who would have thought that the price of a friendship is less than $2 a dozen? A new trend is on the horizon, though; Watch out for Mobile Social Media! Mobile Web 2. 0 is very similar to Web 2. 0, as discussed earlier. In contrast to its predecessor Mobile Web 1. 0, which relied on proprietary protocols (e. g. , WAP) and use-based pricing, Mobile Web 2. 0 is characterized by open standards (e. g. , a transition to the TCP/IP protocol, the technical foundation of the World Wide Web) and ? at-rate systems. Even the manual entry of web addresses using small and dif? cult-to-handle keyboards is becoming history. Soon, all items around you will be equipped with Radio Frequency Identi? cation (RFID) tags that will be able to automatically connect to your mobile phone and send URLs to them, similar to today’s text messages. This technical evolution is laying the groundwork for moving Social Media applications away from desktop PCs and laptops, toward mobile devices. Why log into Facebook if you can easily update all your friends using Twitter? Why wait until you return home to watch the new YouTube video if you can do so conveniently on your iPhone? According to Jupiter Research, the market for Mobile Web 2. evolutions will grow from a mere $5. 5 billion today to an impressive $22. 4 billion by 2013. Mobile Social Media applications are expected to be the main driver of this evolution, soon accounting for over 50% of the market. In one way, this surge toward Mobile Social Media can even be seen as another step toward Internet democratization and closing the digital divide between develop ed and emerging countries. In India, for example, mobile phones outnumber PCs by 10 to 1. In Thailand, only 13% of the population owns a computer, versus 82% who have access to a mobile phone. It is therefore not surprising that the Pew Research Center–—a Washington-based think tank–—estimates that by 2020, a mobile device will be the primary Internet connection tool for most people in the world. Making Social Media applications mobile is likely to tap a currently unexploited base of new users. Even if percapita spending in these countries may still be low, vast population numbers make them relevant for virtually any ? rm. Obviously, Mobile Social Media does not come without a price. Some would argue that while it enables the detailed following of friends half-way across the world, it can foster a society where we don’t now the names of our own next-door neighbors. Be that as it may, and independent of 68 whether or not one approves of such an evolution, it seems undisputable that (Mobile) Social Media will be the locomotive via which the World Wide Web evolves. Businesses, take note–—and don’t miss this train! A. M. Kaplan, M. Haenlein Kaplan, A. M. , Haenlein, M. (2009b). Consumers, companies, and virtual social worlds: A qualitative analysis of Second Life. Advances in Consumer Research, 36(1), 873—874. Kaplan, A. M. , Haenlein, M. (2009c). The fairyland of Second Life: About virtual social worlds and how to use them. Business Horizons, 52(6), 563—572. Kozinets, R. V. 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Microbial Flora and Pathogenicity free essay sample

Microbial Flora Microbial Pathogenicity There are many ways and at many levels a microorganisms can interact with humans. Microorganisms regularly found at any anatomical site are collectively referred to as normal flora. The normal flora present in the body is highly complex and consists of more than 200 species of bacteria. The residency of normal flora depends upon several factors, including age, genetics, sex, nutrition and diet of the person. Therefore, humans have a mutualistic relationship with many of the microorganisms of their indigenous microflora.The normal flora is beneficial from the host a supply of a stable environment and constant temperature, nutrients, protection, and transport. Nutritional benefits, stimulation of the immune system, and colonization strategies are acquired by the host from the normal flora. The normal flora exhibits a tissue preference for colonization. This is referred to as tissue tropism. This is due to the host has the essential growth factor and nutrients for a particular microflora. We will write a custom essay sample on Microbial Flora and Pathogenicity or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Besides, the normal flora can specifically colonize to a particular tissue with capsules, fimbriae, and cell wall components.In addition, some of the indigenous bacteria are able to construct bacteria biofilms on a tissue surface. There are two types of normal flora found which are resident microflora and transient microflora. Resident microflora is defined as the organisms that are always present in the body while transient microflora is those present temporarily and under certain conditions. Human is first colonized by a normal flora at the moment of birth and passage through the birth canal. A fetus has no normal flora.During and after delivery, a newborn is exposed to many microorganisms from its mother, food, air, and basically everything that in contact with the infants. The resident microflora of the skin consists of bacteria and fungi which is approximately 30 different types. The high amount of microorganisms can be found at moist and warm condition in hairy areas of the body where there are many sweat and oil glands, such as under the arms, the groin, moist folds between the toes and fingers. Whereas at dry, calloused areas of skin have fairly low amount of bacterial cells.The majority of skin microorganisms are found on the most superficial layers of the skin and upper part of the hair follicle. They consist of Staphylococcus epidermis and Micrococcus app and corynebacteria. These are considered as commensal ad generally nonpathogenic. However, pathogenic Staphylococcus aureus is found on the face and hands, particularly in individuals who are nasal carriers. The respiratory tract can be divided into upper respiratory and the lower respiratory tract. The nares are mainly colonized, predominantly with Staphylococcus epidermis and corynebacteria with Straphylococcusaureas.The healthy sinuses, in contrast are sterile. The lower respiratory tract is usually free of microbes, mainly because of the efficient cleaning action of the ciliated epithelium which lines the tract. For the microflora in the conjunctiva, numbers of bacteria may be cultivated from the normal conjunctiva but the number of organisms is usually small. Staphylococcus epidermis and certain coryneforms are dominant. Staphylococcus aureus, some streptococci, Haemophilusspp. and Neisseria spp. are usually found.Blinking every second and lachrymal secretions give no opportunity for microorganisms to colonize the conjunctiva without special mechanisms to attach to the epithelial surfaces and the ability to withstand attack by lysozyme. The presence of nutrients, epithelial debris, and secretions makes the mouth a favorable habitat for a great variety of bacteria. If dental hygiene is not taken care well, this will allows growth of these bacteria, with development of dental caries, gingivitis, and more severe periodontal disease. There are several microbes which have been isolated from healthy human mouths.It includes Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria (both cocci and bacilli), spirochetes, and sometimes yeast, moldlike organisms, protozoa, and viruses. The bacteria include species of Actinomyces, Bacteroides, Fusobacterium, Lactobacillus, Porphyromonas, Neisseria, Veillonella, and Streptococcus. A various species of ? -hemolytic streptococci is the most common organisms in the indigenous microflora of the mouth. In the other hand, the urogenital tract consists of urinary tract and the various parts of the male and female reproductive systems.The healthy kidneys, ureters, and urinary bladder are sterile. Moreover, urine is normally sterile, since the urinary tract is flushed with urine every few hours. However, the flora of the anterior urethra, suggests that the area may be inhabited by a relatively consistent normal flora consisting of Staphylococcus epidermis, Streptococcus (Enterococcus) faecalis, and some alpha-hemolytic streptococci. The reproductive systems of both men and women are usually sterile, with the exception of the vagina. Through the childbearing years, vaginal secretions are acidic which is around pH4. to 5. 0, encouraging the growth mainly of lactobacilli. The metabolic by-product of lactobacilli, especially lactic acid, inhibits growth of bacteria vaginosis (BV). A decrease in the number of lactobacilli can lead to overgrowth of other bacteria like Bacteroides spp. , Mobiluncus spp. , Gardnerella vaginalis, and anaerobic cocci, which in turn can lead to BV. Gastric enzymes and extremely acidic pH in gastrointestinal tract (GI) usually prevent growth of indigenous microflora, and most transient microbes are killed as they pass through the stomach.There is one bacterium named Helicobacter pylori which stay in the stomach and is a common cause of ulcers. Few microflora usually exist in the upper portion of small intestine(the duodenum) because bile inhibits their growth, while many are found in the lower parts of the small intestine (the jejunum and ileum). The colon is where it contains most of the number and variety of microorganism of any colonized area of the body. Also, many fungi, protozoa, and viruses can live in the colon. Many of the microflora of the colon are opportunists, causing disease when they gain access to other areas of the body or when the usual balance among the microorganisms is upset. One of the example is E. coli. E. coli bacteria can be found in all individuals. They are opportunists, usually causing us no problem but they can cause urinary tract infection (UTI) when they gain access to the urinary bladder. By definition, pathogenicity is the capability to cause a disease. Microbes express their pathogenicity by means of their virulence, which refers to the degree of pathogenicity of the microbe.There are two types of pathogen, primary pathogen which it capable of establishing disease in a previously healthy individual with intact immunological while opportunistic pathogen is those rarely cause disease in individuals. Both primary and opportunistic pathogens have virulence determinants that facilitate pathogenesis. There are two broad qualities of pathogenic bacteria that can cause disease. Firstly, the invasiveness which means is the ability to invade tissue. It encompasses mechanism for colonization, production of extracellular substances which facilitate invasion and ability to bypass or overcome host defense mechanisms.Toxigenesis is the ability to produce toxins. Bacteria may produce two types of toxins called exotoxins and endotoxins. Exotoxins are released from bacterial cells and may act at tissue sites removed from the site of bacteria growth. Endotoxins are cell-associated substance. The first stage of microbial infection is colonization which is the establishment of the pathogen at the appropriate portal of entry. It normally requires adhesion to the mucosal surface. Adhesion is very important to allow resisting host defense, flushing action of mucous and saliva.It involves surface interaction between specific receptors on the mammalian cell membrane and the bacterial ligand on the bacterial surface. Types of adhesions include fimbrial where it attaches on the surface of many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and fimbriae which is a thin, rigid rod-like structures. Association with infection may differ according to the type of fimbrial antigens. The invasion of a host may be aided by the production of bacterial extracellular substances. Once attached to mucosal surfaces, some pathogens exert their pathogenic effect without penetrating the host tissues.The spreading factors is where the bacterial enzymes that affect the physical properties of tissue matrices and intercellular spaces. It includes hyaluronidase, collagenase, neuraminidase, streptokinase and staphylokinase. However, some pathogenic bacteria are inherently able to resist the bactericidal components of host tissues. Capsules are the most common mechanism to avoid phagocytosis by bacteria. All pathogens associated with meningitis and pneumonia has capsules, for instance, Streptococcus pneumonia and E. coli. Non-capsulated variants are usually less pathogenic.Capsules are polysaccharides that reduce efficiency of phagocytosis as they prevent opsonization of the bacterium by complements and are less immunogenic. In addition, M-protein is used to avoid phagocytosis. It can be found on both the cell surface and fimbriae. It mediates attachment of the bacterium to the host epithelial cells and helps to resist phagocytosis and also increase the virulence of the species. Besides, variation of surface antigen composition during the course of infection provides a mechanism of avoidance of specific immune response directed at those antigens.The normal flora is beneficial for human in many different ways. For example, the secretion of certain intestinal bacteria provides some nutrients, particularly vitamins K and B12, panthothenic acid, pyridoxine and biotin. The normal flora is believed to help prime the immune system and thus contribute to the development of immune competence against pathogens. The mere presence of large numbers of microorganisms at certain anatomic location is beneficial, which they prevent pathogens from colonizing those location.